SHAKESPEARE 
STUDY  PROGRAMS 

THE  COMEDIES 

CHARLOTTE  PORTER  &  HELEN  A.  CLARKE 

Authors  of  "The  Tragedies" 

Editors  of  the  "Pembroke  Shakespeare" 

the  "First  Folio  Shakespeare" 

Poet  Lore,  etc. 


BOSTON:   RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

TORONTO:  THE  COPP CLARK  CO.,  LIMITED 


Copyright,  19x4,  by  Richard  G.  Badger 
All  Rights  Reserved 


THE  GORHAM  PRESS,  BOSTON,  U.  S.  A. 


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INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

The  Shakespeare  Study  Programs  appeared  originally 
in  Poet  Lore.  They  have  met  with  marked  favor,  and 
have  been  reprinted  as  the  back  numbers  went  out  of 
print.  The  steady  demand  for  these  programs  prompts 
the  present  issue  in  book-form.  Several  new  programs 
have  been  added,  and  those  reprinted  have  been  revised. 

The  references  in  this  volume  are  to  the  "First  Folio 
Edition"  of  Shakespeare,  edited  by  Charlotte  Porter. 


"Criticism  is  the  endeavour  to  find,  to  know,  to  love, 
to  recommend  not  only  the  best,  but  all  the  good  that 
has  been  known  and  thought  and  written  in  the  world. 
.  .  .  It  shows  how  to  grasp  and  how  to  enjoy;  .  .  . 
it  helps  the  ear  to  listen  when  the  horns  of  England  blow." 

— GEORGE  SAINTSBURY,  "History  of  Criticism." 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 
The  Comedie  of  Errors 9 

The  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona 24 

Taming  of  the  Shrew 29 

res  Labour's  Lost , 38 

Much  Adoe  About  Nothing 54 

A  Midsommer  Nights  Dreame 64 

-The  Merchant  of  Venice 78 

The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor 85 

As  You  Like  It 91 

4Twelfe   Night 101 

The   Tempest 114 

The  Winter's  Tale.  .  129 


SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS 

In  the  Summer  of  1594  a  translation  of  a  Latin  Farce 
by  the  Roman  Dramatist,  Plautus,  was  made  ready  for 
publication  in  London.  It  may  even  have  been  published 
then,  for,  although  the  title  page  date  is  1595,  then,  as  often 
now,  the  issue  was  made  in  advance  of  date.  Circulation 
in  MS.,  moreover,  now  unusual,  was  then  common. 

This  translation  was  registered,  at  any  rate,  for  publi- 
cation, June  1 6,  1594,  as  "A  Booke  entitled  Menaechmi, 
being  a  pleasant  and  fine  conceited  comedy  taken  out  of 
the  most  wittie  poet  Plautus,  chosen  purposely  from  out 
the  rest  as  being  the  least  harmful  and  most  delightful." 

Six  months  later,  Shakespeare  had  made  an  English 
Farce  out  of  this  Latin  one.  He  invented  several  new  char- 
acters, arranged  many  new  situations,  and  put  a  good 
deal  more  life-likeness  in  the  relations  of  the  characters, 
while  yet  it  may  be  seen  that  his  new  play,  "The  Comedie 
of  Errors,"  was  directly  drawn  from  the  old  one  by 
Plautus. 

The  first  record  we  have  of  Shakespeare  as  an  actor  be- 
fore Queen  Elizabeth  relates  to  the  performance  in  Christ- 
mas week  of  this  same  year  of  "twoe  severall  comedies." 
This  record  in  the  Accounts  of  the  Treasurer  who  paid 
out  the  money  for  the  Plays  acted  before  the  Queen,  runs 
as  follows: 

"To  William  Kempe,  William  Shakespeare,  and  Rich- 
ard Burbage,  servaunts  to  the  Lord  Chamberleyn  upon 

9 


io  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

the  Councelles  warrant  dated  at  Whitehall  xv.  die.  Mar- 
cij  1594  [1595],  for  twoe  severall  comedies  or  enterludes, 
shewed  by  them  before  her  Majestic  in  Christmas  tyme 
laste  paste,  viz.,  upon  St.  Stephen  daye,  [Dec.  26,]  and 
Innocente's  day,  [Dec.  28,]  xiii11  vi8  viijd  and  by  way 
of  her  Majesties  rewarde  vi11  xiij8  ivd  in  all  xx11." 

It  is  fair  to  infer  that  the  "Comedie  of  Errors"  was 
one  of  these  two  comedies,  for  on  the  evening  of  the  28th 
of  December,  1594,  there  arose  a  sudden  necessity  to  hire 
an  entertainment  to  take  the  place  at  Gray's  Inn,  one  of 
the  great  Law  Schools  of  London,  of  a  Play  by  the  stu- 
dents which  had  gone  to  pieces.  In  lieu  of  this  amateur 
play,  for  which  a  great  stage  had  been  built  in  their 
Hall,  it  is  recorded  that  the  great  throng  assembled  were 
forced,  first,  to  "content  themselves  with  ordinary  danc- 
ing and  revelling,  and  when  that  was  over,  with  a  Com- 
edy of  Errors  like  to  Plautus  his  Menoechmus,  which 
was  played  by  the  players."  That  these  "players"  were  pub- 
lic players  is  shown  in  the  Gray's  Inn  account  of  these 
Christmas  festivities  by  another  reference  to  this  "com- 
pany of  base  and  common  fellows"  who  were  "foisted"  in 
"to  make  up  our  disorders  with  a  play  of  Errors  and  Con- 
fusions." 

Since  this  substitution  of  the  "players"  Play  for  the 
Play  by  the  young  gentlemen  students  was  unexpected, 
we  can  be  sure  it  was  not  made  for  this  occasion.  It 
seems  obvious  that  whatever  comedy  was  specially  de- 
signed by  Shakespeare  and  his  fellow  actors  for  their 
Christmas  performances  before  the  Queen  at  Greenwich, 
would  be  apt  to  be  chosen  for  a  sudden  repetition  at 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  n 

Gray's  Inn  the  same  evening.  And  of  course  for  such 
an  institution  of  scholarly  gentlemen  as  Gray's  Inn,  a 
farce  based  on  Plautus  would  be  likely  to  be  thought  ap- 
propriate. 

So  Mrs.  Charlotte  Stopes  argues,  who  brought  into 
association  these  facts  and  dates.  She  brings  out  also, 
another  curious  incident  or  two  concerning  what  we  may 
take  to  be  the  earliest  performances  of  "The  Comedie  of 
Errors."  One  is  that  the  mother  of  the  Earl  of  South- 
ampton,— the  young  nobleman  who  was  Shakespeare's  pa- 
tron and  to  whom  the  Poet  dedicated  "Venus  and  Adonis" 
and  "Lucrece," — was  then  acting  officially  for  her  late 
husband.  Thus  it  fell  to  her  care  to  make  up  his  accounts 
as  Treasurer  of  the  Chamber,  and  she  it  was  who  wrote 
this  particular  notice  of  the  acting  of  Shakespeare  before 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Others  acting  as  Treasurer  did  not 
find  it  worth  their  while  to  include  the  Actors'  names  in 
their  accounts.  This  notice  of  hers  is  the  first  and  last  to 
mention  names  in  this  way.  Her  son,  being  a  Gray's  Inn 
man,  would  have  been  in  a  position  to  suggest  the  substi- 
tution of  Shakespeare's  Play  and  as  a  friend  of  Shake- 
speare's would  desire  to  do  so. 

The  other  incident  of  biographical  interest  is  that  the 
Gray's  Inn  students  were  much  mortified  by  the  uproar 
which  caused  the  failure  of  the  program  of  their  chief  of 
Revels  called  "The  Prince  of  Purpoole,"  and  made  it 
necessary  for  them  to  call  in  common  players.  The  result 
of  their  desire  "to  recover  their  lost  honor  with  some  grav- 
er conceipt"  was  to  give  Jan.  3d,  a  learned  Dialogue 
called  "Divers  Plots  and  Devices."  Bacon  aided  largely 


12  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

in  this  stately  affair.  In  its  course  six  Councillors  one 
after  the  other  deliver  speeches  on  enrollment  of  Knights 
and  Chivalry,  the  glory  of  War,  the  study  of  Philosophy, 
etc.  The  scorn  felt  for  Shakespeare's  "Comedie"  and  the 
contrast  with  this  rival  specimen  of  academic  dramatics 
is  significant. 

Out  of  the  comparatively  simple  plot  of  Plautus,  Shake- 
speare developed  an  amusing  complexity  of  situations. 
These  appear  upon  studying  the  progress  of  the  story,  Act 
by  Act,  as  follows: 

ACT  I 

THE  ARRIVAL  OF   CERTAIN   STRANGERS   IN    EPHESUS 

What  has  the  arrest  of  the  "Marchant"  Egean  to  do 
with  the  rest  of  the  Story?  How  soon  does  any  connec- 
tion appear? 

The  reference  in  scene  ii,  to  the  occurrence  taking  place 
in  scene  i,  suggests  a  somewhat  odd  chance  coincidence  in 
the  arrival  from  Syracuse  on  the  same  day  of  both  of 
these  strangers.  By  this  casual  reference  the  seemingly 
unrelated  scenes  are  so  innocently  linked  together  that 
it  rather  blinds  than  opens  the  eyes  of  the  audience  to  the 
deeper  links  of  connection.  It  also  acts  at  once  as  a  warn- 
ing to  Antipholus,  and  explains  why  he  also  is  not  ar- 
rested under  the  same  law  from  which  Egean  suffered. 

The  merchant  who  gives  Antipholus  this  warning  does 
not  appear  to  be  at  all  an  intimate  friend.  Yet  he  seems 
to  have  met  the  stranger  upon  his  arrival.  Is  this  ac- 
counted for?  What  office  does  the  scene  show  that  he 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  13 

bears  toward  him?  How  recent  an  institution  is  the 
Bank  and  Letter  of  Credit  for  travellers?  Was  the  lack 
of  such  facilities  long  filled  in  the  way  here  exemplified? 

Do  these  two  men  keep  the  appointment  they  made  to 
meet  at  five  o'clock?  Why  is  it  made?  Does  it  serve 
any  need  of  the  Play? 

The  reference  to  Ephesus  as  a  town  given  over  to  sor- 
cery and  witchcraft  assists  in  giving  the  impression  that 
the  time  of  the  Play  falls  within  the  Christian  era,  when 
the  ancient  customs  of  the  Pagan  inhabitants  gave  the 
City  a  bad  repute  of  this  particular  kind.  Was  it  derived 
from  Plautus?  Note  whether  sorcery  and  witchcraft  are 
included  in  his  account  of  the  discreditableness  of  Ephesus. 
What  conclusions  may  be  gathered  as  to  Shakespeare's 
account  of  it  from  a  comparison  with  the  corresponding 
passage  in  Plautus  (This  extract  is  given  in  Note  on  I, 
ii,  102-107  in  the  "First  Folio"  Edition  of  Shakespeare's 
Play).  Show  how  this  statement  is  useful  in  throwing 
light  upon  the  character  of  Antipholus  as  well  as  on 
events. 

The  first  complication  in  scene  ii  arises  from  mistaking 
Dromio  of  Ephesus  for  Dromio  of  Syracuse;  but  notice 
that  this  error  is  accounted  for  by  the  second  source  of 
the  errors  of  the  play — belief  in  witchcraft. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  audience  as  much  in  the  dark  over  the  first  mysti- 
fication as  Antipholus  is?  Should  it  be?  Is  the  play  the 
better  or  worse  for  not  being  clear?  If  both  Dromios  are 
made  to  look  exactly  alike  how  can  the  audience  know? 


i4  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ACT  II 

ANTIPHOLUS    THE    STRANGER   DINES    AT    HOME 

Notice  how  the  last  scene  of  the  preceding  Act  is 
cleared  up  by  the  first  scene  of  the  present  Act. 

Are  the  errors  of  Act  II  the  results  of  those  of  Act  I? 
The  errors  of  Act  I  affect  but  a  very  few  characters,  but 
in  Act  II  how  many?  A  new  source  of  complication  is 
brought  forward  in  this  Act,  also.  Show  what  it  is,  and 
how  it  both  adds  to  the  interest  of  the  Play  as  a  story  and 
to  the  confusion  begun  by  the  mistaken  identity  and  the 
witchcraft  elements  of  the  Plot. 

The  fooling  dialogue  of  Scene  ii  gives  the  action  pause. 
Is  it  therefore  useless,  or  a  dramatic  mistake?  The  ease 
with  which  the  right  master  and  man  fall  into  this  talk 
after  the  earlier  cross-purposes  with  the  wrong  man,  seems 
to  betray  the  fact  that  they  do  belong  together.  They 
are  so  readily  familiar  that  the  cross-purposes  making  up 
the  plot  seem  to  be  no  longer  troublesome  either  to  them- 
selves or  the  audience.  The  interval  of  reassurance  makes 
the  return  of  strangeness  more  unaccountable.  Anti- 
pholus  is  also  now  reassured  about  his  gold,  and  the 
earlier  cross-purpose  seems  only  a  jest. 

Why  does  the  mention  of  Dromio's  name  (II,  ii,  156) 
cause  both  master  and  man  to  exclaim?  Why  should  it 
not  have  led  them  to  guess  the  truth  ? 

Would  this  scene  with  Adriana  and  Luciana  have  been 
equally  mystifying  and  skilful  if  the  right  master  and  man 
had  not  been  together? 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  15 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

In  the  debate  between  the  sisters  upon  patience  in  mar- 
riage is  Adriana  or  Luciana  the  more  justifiable?  Has 
their  argument  anything  to  do  with  the  plot?  Is  charac- 
ter interest  or  plot  interest  of  the  first  importance,  and 
how  are  they  apportioned  in  this  play? 

Is  Adriana's  argument  that  she  is  bound  to  share  mor- 
ally herself  in  the  infidelity  of  her  husband  sophistical? 
Or  has  it  a  core  of  sound  ethical  value? 

ACT  III 

ANTIPHOLUS    THE    NATIVE     INVITES     FRIENDS     TO     DINE 
WITH    HIM 

How  far  are  the  errors  of  Act  III  new?  From  which 
element  of  the  plot,  mistaken  identity,  or  the  domestic  dif- 
ficulties of  the  native-born  Antipholus  do  they  arise? 

What  effects  are  gained  by  bringing  together  in  this 
Act  the  right  pairs  of  master  and  man? 

The  closed  door  between  the  two  groups,  one  within 
the  house,  the  other  without,  is  the  only  barrier  to  such 
an  exhibition  of  the  double  resemblances  as  would  clear 
up  all  difficulties  immediately.  Is  the  humor  of  the  situa 
tion  the  better  for  this  slightness  of  the  barrier,  or  is  it 
rendered  altogether  too  unlikely  by  it?  Notice  also  the 
narrow  escapes  from  meeting  and  being  seen  together 
which  masters  and  men  are  constantly  making  and  the 
skill  of  the  stage  movements  so  that,  for  example,  while 


clear  L^ 
itua- 


A 


16  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

one  pair  of  twins  is  in  the  house,  the  other  pair  is  abso- 
lutely unable  to  come  there,  and  make  clear  the  main 
cause  of  the  errors. 

What  relation  to  the  subordinate  cause  of  the  errors, 
i.  e.,  the  domestic  difficulties  of  Antipholus  the  Native — 
has  the  new  source  of  difficulty  and  bepuzzlement — the 
gold  chain?  Bring  out  the  relation  of  the  dialogue  (III, 
i>  23-35),  between  Antipholus  and  the  friends  he  invites, 
to  the  welcome  they  find  and  discuss  later.  The  irony  of 
his  confidence  in  welcome,  at  least,  which  is  precisely 
what  is  lacking,  is  peculiarly  true  to  such  disappointments 
in  life.  For  the  fun  and  naturalness  gained  by  it,  there- 
fore, the  carefully  planned  arrangement  of  the  dialogue  to 
lead  up  to  it,  does  not  seem  to  be  artificial.  What  would 
have  happened  to  the  plot  if  the  plan  proposed  to  force  the 
door  with  a  crow-bar  had  been  carried  out?  Since  the 
dramatist  was  so  daring  as  to  cause  it  to  be  suggested,  it 
was  incumbent  upon  him  at  once  to  devise  something  to 
prevent  it  from  being  done.  The  way  in  which  he  has 
accomplished  this  through  Balthazar,  puts  both  Anti- 
pholus and  his  guest  in  an  estimable  light.  Show  its  effect 
upon  the  present  scene  and  upon  both  the  character-inter- 
est and  the  scenes  to  come  in  which  the  Courtisan  figures. 
What  expense  does  Antipholus  refer  to  (III,  i,  169)  ? 

Is  Luciana's  advice  so  good  that  it  accounts  for  the 
attraction  she  has  for  Antipholus  the  Stranger?  Or  do 
you  think  she  is  attractive  in  spite  of  it? 

Is  the  dialogue  in  this  Act  between  the  right  master  and 
man  as  good  as  that  in  Act  II?  Has  it  other  excuse  for 
being  besides  punning  and  fooling?  Examine  its  value 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  17 

as  compared  with  the  other  in  introducing  a  new  and 
amusing  error,  and  educing  puns  that  are  suggested  by 
this,  and  therefore  not  independent  of  the  plot. 

This  Act  closes  with  two  new  incidents  of  use  in  the 
sequel:  What  are  they? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  has  Shakespeare  chosen  to  make  Antipholus  the 
Stranger  abhor  Adriana,  and  be  attracted  to  her  sister 
instead?  What  is  the  result  for  the  plot?  Is  it  a  mis- 
take that  the  promised  match  between  Luciana  and  the 
Stranger  is  not  consummated  at  the  close  of  the  play? 
Is  the  reference  then  made  to  it  the  best  imaginable? 
Hlow,  if  so,  is  it  reconcilable  with  the  more  rapid  matches 
at  the  close  of  other  plays,  e.  g.  Oliver  and  Celia  in  "As 
You  Like  It?" 

ACT  IV 

COMPLICATIONS  GROW 

The  errors  of  the  early  Acts  begin  simply  and  proceed 
by  begetting  other  errors  and  beginning,  also,  with  but 
one  of  the  twin  masters  and  one  of  the  twin  men-ser- 
vants proceed  by  involving  every  one  in  each  of  the  two 
Antipholus  groups.  In  this  Act  others  outside  the  main 
groups  are  continually  being  interwoven  in  the  net  of 
complications.  In  which  Act  did  these  larger  social  com- 
plications arise,  and  how  are  they  carried  on  in  the  present 
Act.  Show  how  by  means  of  these  larger  circles  of  com- 


i8  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

plication,  e.  g.,  the  arrests,  the  visits  of  the  Courtisan  to 
Adriana  in  the  attempt  to  get  back  her  ring,  the  con- 
jurring  scenes,  etc.,  the  confusion  becomes  extreme.  And 
then  show,  also,  how  by  the  very  means  of  these  larger 
circles  of  complication  the  clearing  up  process  is  brought 
forward.  To  whom  is  the  suggestion  due  that  Antipho- 
lus  the  Native  has  gone  mad?  What  fitness  is  there  in 
that,  especially  in  its  being  broached  by  a  minor  character? 
Trace  the  relation  of  the  Goldsmith,  his  delays  and  his 
debts  to  the  Plot.  How  does  it  come  about  effectively 
that  in  this  Act  the  wrong  master  and  man  are  together, 
the  opposite  of  what  has  prevailed,  earlier?  Show  how  in 
the  eagerness  of  Adriana  to  send  the  gold  and  the  grief 
over  what  she  jealously  suspects  to  be  the  cause  of  it,  a 
tragic  situation  is  reached.  In  which  scene  is  the  most 
complex  confusion  reached. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  confusion  of  identity,  the  domestic  discord  or 
the  bewitchment  and  supposed  lunacy  the  most  powerful 
factor  in  the  plot  of  error.  Which  is  the  most  comical  and 
which  the  most  tragic  moment  in  this  Act? 

ACTV 

SOLUTIONS   MAKE   ALL   THE    STRANGERS    FEEL    AT    HOME 

The  climax  of  bewilderment  being  reached  in  the  evi- 
dence that  the  same  man  is  both  out  of  the  Priory  and 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  19 

in  it,  solutions  follow.    Trace  the  steps  by  which  this  is 
accomplished. 

Why  is  the  attack  upon  Antipholus  the  Stranger  as- 
signed to  the  Merchant  who  is  the  Goldsmith's  creditor 
instead  of  to  the  Goldsmith?  Is  it  by  chance  or  is  there 
some  reason  for  it?  Why  did  not  Antipholus  explain 
that  he  had  the  chain  through  no  option  of  his  own  ?  By 
means  of  the  Merchant  drawing  his  sword  and  detaining 
him,  the  scene  with  Adriana  at  the  close  of  the  preceding 
Act  when  his  flight  prevented  her  from  having  him  bound 
as  a  mad  man  is  carried  on  again,  and  refuge  in  the  Priory 
forced  upon  him. 

Why  does  the  Abbess  blame  Adriana  first  because  she 
did  not  find  fault  with  her  husband  and  then  because  she 
did  ?  Is  her  sudden  harsh  turn  against  her  explicable  not 
45  personal  inconsistency  or  womanly  prejudice,  but  as 
due  to  a  gleam  of  insight?  What  clew  to  the  case  does 
Adriana's  meekness  afford?  Or  else  of  the  relationship  of 
the  Abbess  to  the  twins?  Why  does  she  so  peremptorily 
keep  the  man  from  his  wife  ?  Is  not  this  conduct  devised 
to  mystify  the  audience  rather  than  the  characters? 

Notice  that  the  Abbess  is  more  of  a  surprise  in  her  re- 
lation to  the  plot  than  the  condemned  Egean  is.    The  Ab- 
bess episode  balances  at  the  close  of  the  Play  the  Egean  ] 
episode  at  the  opening  of  the  story.  Trace  the  links  of  con- 
nection with  the  main  action  of  each  and  their  relation  to 
each  other,  showing  how  they  bind  into  an  absolute  unity  a 
peculiarly  symmetrical  plot.    Why  do  the  two  Dromios  ... 
end  the  Play  instead  of  the  main  characters? 


20  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  this  Play  the  better  or  worse  farce  for  the  serious  do- 
mestic situation  and  the  pathos  of  the  long  separation  of 
the  shipwrecked  family? 

VI 

CHARACTER  DEVELOPMENT 

In  what  sense  can  there  be  said  to  be  a  development  of 
character  in  "The  Comedie  of  Errors?"  If  no  progress 
can  be  traced  in  the  standpoint  of  any  one  character  of  the 
Play,  save  possibly  in  that  of  Adriana,  is  there  yet  not  to 
be  seen  a  gradual  bringing  forward  of  the  traits  inwardly 
differentiating  the  two  pairs  of  twins,  and  stamping  the 
personality  of  Adriana  and  Luciana  and  even  in  a  slighter 
degree  of  the  Goldsmith,  the  Creditor  Merchant,  Egean, 
and  the  Abbess? 

Show  what  you  deem  this  to  be  in  each  character,  and 
by  what  means  the  result  in  each  is  effected. 

Is  Antipholus  the  Stranger  of  a  gentler  and  more  pious 
spirit  than  Antipholus  the  Native?  What  signs  of  this 
impression  can  you  cite?  Was  Antipholus  the  Native  pop- 
ular in  Ephesus?  What  calling  had  he  followed?  Why 
do  we  learn  more  of  Antipholus  the  Stranger  at  once  than 
of  his  brother?  In  what  respects  does  this  suit  the  plot 
and  the  circumstances? 

Which  Dromio  do  you  think  the  wittier?  Is  one  more 
a  house  servant  and  less  of  a  personal  attendant  and  pro- 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  21 

fessional  fool  than  the  other?  Why,  do  you  think,  is 
Antipholus  the  Stranger  made  to  beat  his  man  so  often? 
Is  his  quick  temper,  or  a  sort  of  horse-play  fun  at  the 
bottom  of  it?  Or  is  the  ancient  custom  as  to  body  ser- 
vants exemplified? 

Which  Antipholus  has  been  the  more  independently 
reared  and  is  this  signified  in  their  characters?  It  has 
been  supposed  that  Antipholus  the  Native  married  at  the 
Duke's  bidding  for  money  and  not  for  love.  What  rea- 
son does  the  Play  give  for  this  supposition?  Is  Adriana's 
jealousy  a  reason,  or  is  he  fonder  of  her  than  she  realizes? 
Which  of  the  Sisters  do  you  like  best,  and  why? 

Why  would  Antipholus  the  Native  be  better  mated 
with  one  than  the  other?  In  what  respects  of  character 
would  Luciana  be  apt  to  attract  Antipholus  the  Stranger 
more  than  Adriana  would?  Are  there  signs  to  show  that 
Adriana  and  her  husband  are  the  more  stalwart  pair? 
Show  how  admirably  the  riper  characters  of  the  father 
and  mother  set  off  the  qualities  and  relationships  of  the 
younger  group. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

The  resemblances  of  the  twins  externally  are  counter-  , 
balanced  by  diversities  that  are  internal,  so  that  the  pos- 
sibilities of  confusion  may  be  said  to  be  only  skin  deep, 
Does  this  add  to  the  improbableness  of  the  plot  sufficiently 
to  make  it  a  questionable  quality  of  the  plot  that  the 
characters  are  so  much  differentiated,  or  does  it  serve 
rather  to  enrich  the  Play  and  make  it  far  more  interest- 


22  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ing?  Are  there  signs  of  character  in  Adriana  and  her 
husband  going  to  show  that  they  are  destined  to  be  hap- 
pier in  their  relation  to  each  other  than  ever  before? 

VII 

SHAKESPEARE'S  DEPARTURES  FROM  PLAUTUS 

The  omissions  and  changes  Shakespeare  made  from 
Plautus's  plot  are  almost  as  important  in  lending  his  Play 
a  new  effect  as  the  additions  and  entirely  original  inven- 
tions. 

Notice  the  entire  omission  of  the  borrowed  cloak  taken 
from  his  wife,  Mulier,  by  Menaechmus  and  given  to  the 
Courtisan,  Erotium;  also,  of  the  character  of  the  para- 
site, Peniculus,  by  means  of  whom  as  a  spiteful  informer 
the  wife  is  told  of  her  husband's  relations  with  Erotium 
and  the  dinner  he  proposes  to  take  with  her.  Instead  of 
Mulier's  father,  Senex,  Shakespeare  creates  the  noble 
Egean,  the  father  of  the  Twins.  Introducing  his  plot 
with  the  incident  of  his  arrest,  he,  closes  it  with  the  still 
more  notable  character  of  the  mother  whom  he  gives  an 
important  part  to  play  in  the  happy  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  the  re-union.  The  part  of  the  Duke  and  the 
trade  relations  of  the  two  cities,  the  city  in  Sicily  as  in 
Plautus,  the  other  Ephesus,  instead  of  Epidamnum,  as  in 
Plautus,  are  ingenious  changes  of  an  external  sort.  What 
is  effected  by  them  ?  The  different  treatment  of  the  din- 
ner incident  which  causes  the  husband  to  mean  to  dine  at 
home,  until  he  finds  he  cannot,  when  with  others  he  in- 


THE  COMEDIE  OF  ERRORS  23 

vites  the  courtisan  to  dine  with  them  at  an  Inn,  lends  a 
different  color  to  the  story.  What  do  you  think  it  effects 
as  to  character,  amusingness,  and  unity  with  the  plot  of 
mistaken  identity  ?  The  courtisan's  open  visit  to  the 
wife  and  direct  effect  upon  the  plot  is  in  strong  contrast 
to  the  intrigue  of  which  the  wife  is  informed  by  a  third 
person.  Bring  this  out,  and  show  what  the  influence  is. 
Compare  the  argument  of  Plautus  (For  this  see  "First 
Folio  Edition"  of  "Comedie  of  Errors,"  p.  76)  with  the 
opening  scene  wherein  Shakespeare  causes  Egean  to  tell 
the  story  out  of  which  the  Play  grows.  In  what  respects 
is  this  an  improvement?  (See  Extract  from  Ten  Brink, 

P.  183). 

What  is  accomplished  by  the  addition  of  the  twin  ser- 
vants?— the  two  Dromios?  (for  special  assistance  in  a 
comparative  appreciation  of  Shakespeare's  farce  and  that 
of  Plautus  see  Introduction  also  Sources  in  the  "First 
Folio  Edition  of  this  Play). 

QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

Is  the  complexity  of  Shakespeare's  plot  over  that  of 
Plautus  a  disadvantage?  If  not,  how  does  this  fact  agree 
with  the  common  saying  that  simplicity  in  Art  is  the  high- 
est Art? 

Are  the  farcical  interest  and  the  character  interest  car- 
ried on  too  far  not  to  be  seen  to  be  inconsistent  interests? 
Or  is  the  secret  of  the  Art  of  the  Play  the  reconciliation 
and  harmony  of  the  farcical  and  the  serious? 


THE  TWO  GENTLEMEN  OF  VERONA 

The  unusual  in  this  Comedy  is  due  to  its  reflection  of  the 
ideals  and  manners  of  Chivalry  in  Love  and  Friendship  as 
loyally  professed  by  Valentine  and  Silvia  and  outraged  by 
Protheus. 

The  plot  is  extremely  simple  and  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  causing  its  main  characters  successively  to  dominate  in 
their  influence  upon  the  action. 

ACT  I 

VALENTINE  VERSUS  PROTHEUS  AND  JULIA 

Valentine's  reasons  for  travel  and  those  of  Protheus  for 
staying  at  home  separate  the  two  friends.  Compare  Val- 
entine's preference  of  Honor,  and  that  of  Protheus  for 
Love,  with  the  opening  of  "Loves  Labour's  Lost"  and 
"Much  Adoe." 

Show  how  the  rest  of  the  action,  after  the  separation  of 
the  friends  to  suit  this  double  thesis  of  life,  depends  upon 
illustrating  the  effect  of  Protheus's  love  upon  Julia's  for- 
tunes, and  of  Valentine's  quest  of  honor  upon  the  fortunes 
of  Protheus.  Notice  how  it  happens  that  his  own  decep- 
tion has  a  direct  influence  upon  his  father,  so  that  his 
departure  to  join  Valentine  is  as  much  due  to  his  own 
lack  of  firmness  in  his  desire  to  stay  on  Julia's  account,  as 
to  Valentine's  initiative  in  going. 

24 


THE  TWO  GENTLEMEN  OF  VERONA    25 

QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

Is  Valentine's  or  Protheus's  the  more  influential  char- 
acter upon  the  course  of  events  thus  far? 

ACT  II 

VALENTINE  AND   SILVIA 

Tell  the  story  of  this  Act. 

Explain  the  courtship  scene  with  which  this  Act  opens 
as  illustrating  the  service  of  love  in  systems  of  Chivalry. 
(For  hints  on  this  see  Introduction  to  the  Play  in  "First 
Folio  Edition"  also  Note  on  II,  i,  97). 

Contrast  the  earnestness  of  Valentine's  nature  in  this 
devotion  to  Silvia  with  the  fickleness  of  Protheus. 

The  two  servants,  Speed  and  Launce,  may  be  compared, 
their  contrasts  to  each  other  shown,  and  their  general  re- 
semblance to  a  similarly  contrasted  pair — the  two  Dro- 
mios  in  the  "Comedie  of  Errors." 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  love  of  Protheus  for  Silvia  a  reflex  influence  from 
Valentine's  extreme  enthusiasm? 

Why  does  Lucetta  distrust  Protheus? 

ACT  III 

THE   FALSE  FRIEND 

What  effect  has  the  arrival  of  Protheus  at  the  Milan- 
ese Court?  How  does  the  new-comer  manage  to  domi- 
nate this  Act?  Point  out  the  skill  of  Protheus  in  making 
his  disclosure  to  the  Duke  seem  to  be  reluctantly  wrung 


26  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

from  him  against  the  friendship  he  feels  for  Valentine  and 
only  because  of  a  sense  of  duty  toward  the  Duke. 

What  does  this  delicacy  accomplish  toward  his  own 
courtship  of  Silvia?  If  he  had  seemed  eager  to  tell  his 
friend's  secrets  would  not  the  Duke  distrust  him  and  sus- 
pect some  self-interest  on  his  part  ?  What  did  his  mention 
of  Thurio's  suit  do  for  himself  ? 

Compare  the  nature  of  the  two  friends'  talk ;  how  that 
of  Protheus  gives  a  better  impression  of  himself  than  is 
true,  that  of  Valentine,  a  worse.  Show  the  consistency 
in  wile  of  Protheus  in  his  conduct  toward  the  Duke, 
Thurio,  Silvia,  and  Julia.  Why  does  it  succeed  ?  Where- 
in is  it  likely  to  fail? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Protheus  impossibly  false  as  a  character?  Or  is  his 
duplicity  an  exemplification  of  the  facility  toward  evil 
of  this  kind  that  is  natural  to  an  extremely  impressionable 
nature  which  lacks  stability? 

In  what  does  Valentine's  superiority  consist?  Are  the 
maxims  for  the  treatment  of  women  which  he  gives  the 
Duke  due  to  artificial  system  learned  from  others  or  a 
part  of  his  own  experience? 

ACT  IV 

SILVIA  AND  JULIA 

Tell  the  story  of  the  Act.  All  the  main  characters  and 
one  new  one  have  their  parts  in  the  next  steps  in  the  plot  ? 
What  are  those  parts? 


THE  TWO  GENTLEMEN  OF  VERONA    27 

Valentine's  fate  and  its  result. 

Silvia's  determination  and  its  effect.  Notice  how  her 
call  upon  Eglamoure  for  knightly  service  brings  the  ac- 
tion into  the  province  of  Chivalry  again. 

Julia's  office  in  the  schemes  of  Protheus. 

Is  this  Act  dominated  in  its  drift  by  the  two  women? 
How  do  they  put  their  impress  upon  events? 

Show  how  the  villain  Protheus  is  instrumental  in 
bringing  these  two  women  together,  and  how  this  is  equiv- 
alent to  uniting  against  his  evil  policy,  the  good  forces  of 
the  Play.  The  loyalty  of  Silvia  to  Julia  considered  as 
offsetting  the  falsity  of  Protheus  to  Valentine. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  most  actively  beneficial  episode  in  this  Act  also 
the  most  charming. 

ACT  V 

VALENTINE,    SILVIA    AND    JULIA    VERSUS    PROTHEUS 

i 

What  are  the  results  of  Silvia's  flight? 

Why  does  outlawry  bring  out  the  superiority  of  Valen- 
tine? 

Does  it  serve  also  to  bring  out  the  inferiority  of  Pro- 
theus ? 

How  does  outlawry  serve  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  the 
Duke  and  Thurio  and  bring  about  the  conquest  over  them 
of  Valentine? 


28  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

How  does  Thurio's  nature  inure  to  the  credit  of  Val- 
entine's with  the  Duke? 

Does  outlawry  here  represent  the  injustices  of  civic 
life?  To  what  degree?  Or  the  natural  life  beneficent 
and  innocent  of  Arden  Forest  in  "As  You  Like  It?"  To 
what  degree  is  this  true? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  did  Julia  swoon?  Was  the  repentance  of  Pro- 
theus  genuine? — and  natural?  What  does  Valentine 
mean  by  his  forgiveness  of  Protheus  and  his  proof  of  it — 
"All  that  was  mine,  in  Silvia,  I  give  thee?"  could  he  give 
her,  personally,  against  her  will,  in  Chivalry?  Or  in  true 
love?  How  could  he  mean  anything  then,  but  proving 
by  this  entrusting  of  her  to  his  friend  his  belief  in  his 
loyalty  and  purity? 

Why  is  Silvia  silent?  (See  Introduction  to  the  Play 
in  "First  Folio  Edition,"  also  Selected  Criticism  and 
Notes  on  V,  iv,  91,  for  hints  on  these  latter  queries). 


THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW 

A  Play  or  mask  within  the  Play  is  not  uncommon  in 
Shakespeare.  A  Play  outside  the  Play  especially  distin- 
guishes the  arrangement  of  this  Comedy. 

Perhaps  it  serves  to  indicate  that  the  theme  of  the  tam- 
ing of  a  wife  is  crude  and  primitive  folk-farce,  particu- 
larly suited  to  the  taste  of  the  drunken  tinker  before 
whom  it  is  played. 

Shakespeare's  handling  of  the  tinker's  subject,  however, 
like  other  rude  and  homely  matters  taken  up  by  an  acute 
mind  is  such  as  to  fasten  deeper  attention  and  to  overgo 
a  tinker's  appreciation. 


THE   PLAY   OUTSIDE   THE   PLAY 

The  effect  of  the  Induction  in  dramatic  presentation  is 
not  easy  to  estimate.  Since  there  is  no  direct  connection 
between  it  and  the  Play  itself  what  do  you  see  that  it 
could  be  made  to  do  for  the  action  ?  Is  it  like  a  frame  for 
a  picture  adapted  to  give  the  theme  remoteness?  Is  this 
appropriate?  Is  it  otherwise  a  mere  cause  for  confusion? 
Or  is  it  intended  to  add  one  more  thread  of  amusement? 
Why  does  Shakespeare  in  "The  Shrew"  drop  the  tinker 
interregnum  dialogue  recurring  regularly  in  "A  Shrew?" 
May  Shakespeare,  therefore,  be  cited  as  finding  only  a 
limited  use  for  "the  Play  outside  the  Play,"  deeming 
it  in  the  way  later  ?  How  has  he  arranged  for  its  gradual 

29 


30  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

disappearance  from  attention?  Is  there  a  stage  reason 
alone  enough  to  account  for  it?  (See  suggestions  in  Notes 
on  I,  i,  266,  and  IV,  iii,  i,  "First  Folio  Edition").  Com- 
pare the  Tinker  scenes  in  the  version  of  1594.  (For  these 
see  Extracts  in  Sources,  pp.  105-110,  in  "First  Folio  Edi- 
tion"). Do  the  Slie  of  "A  Shrew"  and  Christophero  Sly 
of  "The  Shrew"  differ  as  characters?  As  to  their  opinion 
of  the  Play:  Are  their  between-the-act  dialogues  ma- 
terially different? 

What  is  the  relation  to  the  source  and  what  has  been 
altered  from  the  old  tale. 

The  local  Warwickshire  touches  in  the  Induction  and 
their  explanation.  (For  these  see  "Story  of  the  Induc- 
tion" in  the  Play). 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Ought  the  Induction  play  to  be  left  out?  How  might 
it  be  made  more  effective  by  special  treatment  on  the 
stage?  Should  the  additional  scenes  be  interpolated  as 
was  the  stage  custom,  or  should  Shakespeare's  diminishing 
notice  of  them  be  adopted  to  produce  the  most  artistic 
effect? 

II 

THE    DOUBLE    PLOT    OF    THE    MAIN    PLAY 

In  "A  Shrew"  and  "The  Shrew" :  Show  how  the  story, 
with  respect  to  the  Taming  scenes,  is  the  same  substan- 


THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW         31 

tially,  with  comparatively  minor  differences,  except  for 
the  characterization.  But  with  respect  to  the  Bianca 
scenes  it  has  been  expanded  and  altered.  This  suggests, 
most  naturally,  that  the  part  Shakespeare  did  not  write 
or  answer  for  in  "A  Shrew"  was  merely  the  Bianca  scenes, 
and  that  his  task  in  "The  Shrew"  was  to  cut  out  and  re- 
write the  scenes  that  were  not  his  so  as  to  be  unhampered 
with  the  disharmony  of  the  two  parts  of  the  plot  as  it  ap- 
pears in  the  Quarto  of  1594. 

The  story  of  the  Play  as  it  now  stands  consists  of  an 
interweaving  of  the  Taming  story  and  the  story  of 
Bianca's  Courtship  in  such  a  way  that  while  they  keep 
their  separateness  of  necessity,  they  balance  better  in  in- 
terest and  are  more  continually  brought  to  bear  upon  each 
other  from  time  to  time.  What  are  their  points  of  con- 
tact in  each  Act  ?  The  sisters  with  relation  to  their  father 
and  their  suitors  in  Act  I :  How  does  this  initiate  the  ac- 
tion ? 

With  relation  to  each  other  and  the  Music  Master  in 
Act  II :  How  does  this  separate  the  action  into  two  lines 
of  Courtship. 

After  Katherine's  marriage  in  Act  III  the  interest  di- 
vides between  the  Taming  of  Katherine  and  the  Court- 
ship of  Bianca. 

In  Act  IV  two  or  three  points  of  contact  are  arranged 
by  means  of  the  journey  and  what  two  characters? 

In  Act  V  how  is  contact  both  objective  and  moral  ob- 
tained? 

Alternative  interest  in  the  Bianca  Courtship  after 
Kate's  marriage  and  taming  is  attained  by  the  elaborate 


32  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

scheme  to  make  Lucentio  the  most  successful  suitor  and 
the  droll  surprises  and  difficulties  met  with  in  the  process. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  lack  of  unity  in  the  Play  sufficiently  remedied 
by  enriching  the  Bianca  counterplot  and  arranging  for  al- 
ternate interest  first  in  the  plot  and  then  in  the  counter- 
plot, or  is  the  original  difficulty  irremediable? 

In  which  story  is  plot  or  else  character  the  supreme  in- 
terest? 

Is  the  Bianca  story  or  the  {Catherine  story  the  more  en- 
tertaining? Why? 

Ill 

BIANCA  AND  HER  SUITORS 

Lucentio's  errand  in  Padua,  his  breeding  and  relations 
to  his  servant  qualify  him  as  quite  the  conventional  hero 
of  a  romantic  love-story.  How  does  he  compare  with  the 
young  noblemen  of  "Loves  Labour's  Lost  ?"  What  part  of 
the  study  of  Philosophy  does  he  specially  desire  to  take  up 
and  how  does  his  temper  toward  learning  fall  in  with 
theirs? 

What  light  does  Bianca  on  her  appearance  throw  upon 
herself?  Through  the  testimony  of  her  sister  and  her 
father  and  the  two  suitors  what  else  is  to  be  gathered  ? 

Her  effect  upon  Lucentio:  The  parallelism  with  "A 
Midsommer  Nights  Dreame"  (I,  i,  156,  and  see  p.  134  in 
the  First  Folio  Edition  of  "The  Shrew")  not  appearing  in 
"A  Shrew,"  considered  as  indicative  of  the  favorite  method 


THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW         33 

of  Shakespearian  lovers  in  falling  in  love  at  first  sight. 

{Catherine's  effect  upon  Tranio,  lost  upon  Lucentio,  in 
his  daze  over  Bianca,  leads  to  what  plan  of  action?  How 
does  the  part  Hortensio  and  Gremio  play  in  this  rein- 
force the  plot,  and  combine  them  all  to  instigate  Petru- 
chio  to  woo  Katherine?  How  does  the  contest  for  the 
best  sale  of  Bianca  when  Katherine  is  out  of  the  way  lead 
to  a  new  plot?  The  money-contest  of  the  suitors,  judged 
by  the  father  is  supplemented  by  the  mock  teaching-con- 
test of  the  lovers  of  which  Bianca  herself  is  the  judge. 
Show  how  this  constitutes  the  second  step  in  the  action 
and  what  complications  and  simplifications  it  prepares. 
Lucentio's  studies  in  the  hedonistic  Philosophy  he  pro- 
fesses and  its  victory  over  Music  and  Hortensio. 

What  is  Bianca's  contribution  to  the  gossip  excited  by 
{Catherine's  wedding,  and  what  impression  does  Act  III 
give  you  altogether  of  Bianca's  character?  Is  the  bad  re- 
port of  it  in  Act  IV,  made  by  Hortensio,  as  the  Musician, 
Lisio,  with  Tranio,  quite  fair  to  her? 

The  abusive  opinion  and  jealousy  of  Hortensio  as- 
sisted by  the  supposed  Lucentio  narrow  down  the  uncer- 
tainties of  the  courtship  so  as  to  concentrate  interest  on 
the  new  scheme  of  the  supposed  father.  How  is  this 
worked  out  ?  Explain  the  conflict  with  the  arrival  of  the 
true  father,  and  the  amusing  counter-play. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  does  Lucentio's  suit  excel  that  of  any  other  in 
interest? 

Is  Bianca  wrong  in  acting  independently  of  her  father? 


34  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

IV 

THE   SHREW   AND    HER   TAMER 

Does  the  Shrew  justify  her  reputation  on  her  first  ap- 
pearance? What  is  said  of  her  compared  with  what  she 
does  then  and  in  Act  II  ?  Why  is  Petruchio's  first  approach 
with  a  combat  of  wit  and  a  great  bluff  of  compliment 
effective?  Is  Kate  really  impressed  by  it,  or  only  fearful 
that  she  is  being  fooled?  How  do  you  account  for  her 
denial  of  him  and  his  suit  to  her  father  in  Act  II  and  her 
mortification  when  he  does  not  arrive  till  late  in  Act  III? 
Does  Petruchio's  speech  to  the  others  and  before  them 
(II,  i,  328-350)  account  for  the  change?  His  arrival  at 
the  wedding  in  such  shabby  attire  and  with  so  wretched 
an  appearance  as  to  retinue,  with  his  sorry  horse  and  man- 
servant contrasts  strongly  with  the  promises  held  out  in 
this  speech.  What  is  the  effect  on  Kate  and  why  does  it 
serve  his  purpose? 

Is  Kate's  entreaty  to  stay,  or  her  action  in  showing  her 
bridegroom  the  door  the  climax  of  the  wedding  scene? 
What  is  the  point  in  the  stage  business  of  Petruchio's 
speech  warning  others  not  to  touch  his  chattel?  Is  she 
really  being  befriended  by  the  bystanders  when  she  de- 
clares they  must  go  "forward  to'  the  bridall  dinner"  or  is 
she  so  entirely  alone  in  her  opposition  to  Petruchio's  com- 
mand to  go,  that  his  speech  is  the  keenest  satire  upon  her 
defencelessness  in  every  direction  but  through  him? 

Is  Petruchio's  conduct  at  home  and  the  servants'  com- 
ment upon  it  such  as  to  make  Kate's  two  entreaties  expli- 
cable? 


THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW         35 

What  light  docs  Petruchio's  own  account  (IV,  i,  183- 
207 )  of  his  method  throw  upon  it  ? 

In  the  eating  and  haberdasher  scene  (IV,  iii)  what  is  it 
Kate  learns — merely  that  she  cannot  command  by  force 
and  can  have  what  she  wants  by  another  method?  What 
is  the  secret  of  her  tractableness  in  Scene  v? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Are  Katherine  and  Petruchio  the  most  interesting  char- 
acters in  the  Play?  Why? 

Is  their  prominence  due  to  their  personal  attractiveness 
or  to  the  Dramatist's  skill? 


THE  TRIPLE  MARRIAGE  AND  THE  MORAL 

Why  should  the  Play  not  end  with  Act  IV? 

What  does  Act  V  add? 

Is  the  quality  of  the  table-talk  in  keeping  with  the  plot 
and  characters? 

The  husbands'  talk  and  wager  turns  on  what  point, 
obedience  to  the  husband,  or  agreement  of  husband  and 
wife  as  mutually  to  their  interest? 

Show  the  drift  of  Kate's  expression  of  the  moral  of 

the  Play,  and  state  your  own  way  of  looking  at  it. 

t 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Did  Petruchio  and  Kate  give  an  impromptu  perform- 
ance of  conjugal  felicity,  or  one  decided  upon  beforehand? 


36  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Was  Kate  quick-witted  enough  to  guess  there  was  money 
in  it,  or  was  she  really,  once  of  a  different  mind  and  re- 
formed. 

VI 

THE  FOLK  ORIGIN  OF  THE  TAMING 

Trace  the  antiquity  of  this  schooling  of  a  wife,  and  the 
resemblances  and  contrasts  in  the  chief  variants  of  the 
story  (for  help  in  this  see  Sources  in  "First  Folio  Edi- 
tion"). 

Is  there  any  progress  to  be  discerned  in  the  degree  of 
bodily  force  deemed  expedient? 

Is  any  such  scheme  of  the  marriage-relation  compatible 
with  advanced  civilization,  or  is  it  peculiar  to  crude  no- 
tions of  life  in  a  taming  age? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  folk-legend  indicative  of  an  inherent  relation  in 
marriage  of  the  male  and  female  natures,  or  is  it  merely 
an  expression  of  established  custom  and  legalized  institu- 
tion upon  gaining  for  each  the  aims  and  line  of  conduct  de- 
sired ?  If  so,  is  the  result  of  the  process  to  gain  a  ground 
of  mutual  compromise  and  accommodation  and  a  division 
of  labor  in  joint  life  which  will  enable  the  process  itself  to 
fall  into  disuse. 

Is  co-ercion  of  others  consistent  with  a  high  grade  of 
individuality? 

Did  Petnichio  play  the  Tamer  in  a  "Pickwickian  sense" 


THE  TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW         37 

and  the  whole  thing  being  a  bit  of  acting,  did  Kate  see 
through  it,  finally,  and  play  her  part  too? 

The  use  of  finesse  in  the  Play  (see  Introduction  to  the 
Play  "First  Folio  Edition"). 

Does  Shakespeare's  way  of  handling  the  characters  and 
the  process  of  taming  materially  differ  from  the  way  pre- 
vailing both  in  the  crude  folk  tales  and  in  "A  Shrew?" 

Does  he  suggest  that  in  both  Petruchio's  and  Kate's 
case  they  are  merely  bent  upon  their  own  individual  emo- 
tions until  closer  relation  makes  them  join  forces? 

What  is  the  modern  bearing  of  Shakespeare's  way  of 
putting  the  story? 

Partnership  and  co-operation  versus  autocratic  rule: 
Are  the  administrative  advantages  of  the  latter  consonant 
with  the  good  will  and  continual  psychical  development 
furthered  by  the  former? 

Does  the  intellectual  advantage  rest  with  the  user  of 
force  or  with  the  mind  that  accommodates  itself  to  force 
by  gaining  its  ends  by  stratagem  and  other  indirect  poli- 
cies? 

Is  coercion  as  wise  as  persuasion  which  has  no  such  pen- 
alties to  pay? 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S  LOST 

Shakespeare  makes  us  laugh  in  "Loves  Labour's  Lost" 
at  the  futility  of  the  attempt  of  ascetic  and  academic  men 
to  shut  out  love  and  women  from  their  schemes  of  life 
and  study. 

His  early  work  in  putting  the  past  history  of  England 
into  dramatic  form  may  possibly  have  suggested  to  him  to 
put  more  recent  history  on  the  stage  by  means  of  this 
Comedy.  Light  as  it  is,  the  point  of  it  is  to  satirize  the 
monastic  and  exclusive  element  in  current  educational 
schemes.  Fictitious  as  the  story  is,  it  touches  upon  names 
and  incidents  belonging  to  actual  history.  So  familiar 
were  these  actual  happenings  of  the  day  to  his  audience 
that  it  could  especially  enjoy  these  veiled  allusions  to 
them. 

The  main  idea  of  the  plot  of  the  Comedy — the* 'Acad- 
eme," was  one  that  had  a  bearing  upon  various  similarly 
named  educational  projects  of  that  time  in  England. 

One  such  scheme  was  drawn  up  about  1570,  by  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  half-brother, 
for  the  "education  of  her  Majeste's  Wardes  and  others 
the  youths  of  nobility  and  gentlemen."  This  plan  was,  like 
Shakespeare's  arranged  for  a  "three  yeeres  terme"  (I,  i, 
20)  and  at  the  end  of  "every  three  years"  some  book  was 
to  be  published  which  would  represent  the  fruit  of  the 
Academy's  study  during  that  period.  Merely  the  title 
of  this  scheme — "Queen  Elizabethes  Achademy"  may  have 

38 


LOVE'S   LABOUR'S  LOST  39 

suggested  Shakespeare's  "Achademe"  (I,  i,  17).  Of 
course,  however,  both  Gilbert's  and  Shakespeare's  adop- 
tion of  the  name  are  examples  of  the  appropriation  by 
educational  groups  of  the  classic  academes  of  the  Philoso- 
phers of  Athens  and  their  student  followers.  Another 
educational  plan  "for  the  bringing  up  in  vertue  and  learn- 
ing of  the  Queenes  Majestis  Wardes,"  was  devised  by 
Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  in  1561.  Later,  in  the  reign  of 
James  I,  the  establishment  of  the  "Academe  Royal"  by 
Bolton,  is  an  example  of  the  early  vogue  of  the  name, 
which  has  since  become  familiar  everywhere,  for  educa- 
tional and  learned  institutions. 

A  less  important  element  in  the  formation  of  the  plot 
is  the  allusion  to  current  French  politics  which  the  situa- 
tion of  the  characters  of  the  Play  suggests. 

A  King  of  Navarre  and  a  Princess  of  France  con- 
ferring in  treaty  over  a  disputed  province  and  a  claim  of 
allowance  for  services  rendered  is  an  incident  constituting 
a  reference  to  a  state  of  things  in  France  then  closely  con- 
cerning England.  The  succession  to  the  throne  of  France 
of  Henry  of  Navarre,  the  champion  of  the  Huguenots  of 
France,  was  long  contested.  England  was  friendly  to 
Navarre,  the  object  of  her  foreign  policy  being  to  coun- 
terpoise the  power  of  Spain  and  the  Catholics  of  France, 
with  whom  Queen  Elizabeth's  most  formidable  rival, 
Mary  Stuart,  was  allied  in  interest. 

No  king  of  Navarre  was  ever  named  Ferdinand.  Yet 
by  making  an  entirely  fictitious  hero  a  king  of  Navarre 
and  the  suitor  of  a  princess  of  France,  the  relationship  of 
Henry  of  Navarre  to  dominance  in  France  was  suggested 


40  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

in  an  unobjectionable  and  amusing  way.  And  the  death 
of  the  King  of  France  introduced  at  the  close  of  the  Play, 
involving  the  prospect  as  a  probability  that  the  hero  might 
then  succeed  to  the  throne  of  France,  could  scarcely  fail 
to  remind  Shakespeare's  audience  of  the  actual  struggle  of 
the  King  of  Navarre  for  the  French  crown,  and  also  of 
the  fact  that  on  the  death  of  the  French  King  in  August, 
1589,  Navarre  then  became  heir  presumptive,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Ivry  in  1590  Spain  delayed  but  could  not 
long  obstruct  his  complete  success. 

In  1593  the  most  important  cities  of  the  Kingdom 
yielded  him  allegiance  and  in  the  Spring  of  1594  Paris 
herself  opened  her  gates  to  him.  These  dates  1589-1594 
indicate  the  time,  also,  when  "Loves  Labour's  Lost"  is 
likely  to  have  been  timely  in  these  references,  and  yield  a 
clew  to  its  date  of  composition. 

The  effect  of  these  allusions  to  French  political  affairs, 
made  more  piquant  by  the  downfall  of  Spain  in  her  politi- 
cal opposition  both  to  England  and  the  party  of  Henry 
of  Navarre,  was  intensified  in  Shakespeare's  Play  by  the 
names  given  to  Navarre's  lords.  Berowne,  as  the  name 
appears  in  the  Folio,  is  an  English  spelling  of  the  French 
name  Biron,  to  which  it  is  changed  in  modernized  editions 
of  Shakespeare.  Longavill  is  an  English  equivalent  of 
Longueville,  and  Dumaine  or  Dumane  of  De  Mayenne, 
names  which  also  are  changed  in  the  modernized  editions, 
although  not  consistently.  All  these  names  are  associated 
with  Navarre's  struggles  in  France.  The  Marechal  de 
Biron  and  the  Due  de  Longueville  fought  prominently  on 
Navarre's  side.  The  Due  de  Mayenne,  brother  of  Henry 


LOVE'S   LABOUR'S   LOST  41 

of  Guise,  fought  on  the  opposite  side.  The  Due  d'Alen- 
cpn  long  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  is 
mentioned  as  the  father  of  Rosaline. 

Another  veiled  reference  to  a  Russian  suitor  of  the 
Queen's  seems  to  be  made  in  the  incident  introduced  in 
the  last  Act.  This  scene  of  the  wooing  of  the  King  and 
his  lords  when  disguised  as  Russians  makes  fun,  perhaps, 
of  an  actual  embassy  of  Russians  to  the  Court  of  Eliza- 
beth, in  1583,  when  the  Queen  had  arranged  to  put  upon 
Lady  Mary  Hastings  the  suit  which  the  Czar  Ivan  had 
originally  hoped  to  proffer  to  the  Queen  herself.  (For  in- 
formation upon  these  and  other  incidents  of  the  period 
that  may  be  used  in  the  plot  see  Sources,  pp.  106-116  also 
Notes  in  the  "First  Folio  Edition"  of  this  Play). 

ACT  I 

THE   VOW   AND   ITS    FIRST   ANTAGONISTS 

The  theme  of  the  Comedy — the  exclusion  of  love  for 
the  sake  of  winning  fame  for  learning,  is  made  clear  by  the 
first  speaker.  The  opposition  Love  will  make  to  this  is 
next  expressed  through  another  speaker,  and  then  em- 
bodied in  a  practical  example.  Bring  out  the  argument, 
in  full,  on  both  sides,  as  expressed  by  the  King  and  his 
lords,  on  the  one  side,  and  by  one  lord  who  is  less  subser- 
vient on  the  other  side.  What  does  Berowne  object  to 
in  the  King's  idea  about  study  and  fame?  He  says, 
practically,  that  fame  is  a  mere  expression  of  opinion, 
and  that  as  anybody  can  give  anyone  the  name  of  be- 


42  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ing  learned  or  the  name  of  being  anything,  fame  may 
be  given  by  those  who  have  very  little  notion  of  any  real 
knowledge.  Superficial  knowledge  is  knowledge  of  names 
but  real  knowledge  is  that  which  names  mean.  In  a 
word,  we  but  dull  our  minds  and  blind  our  eyes  in  poring 
over  the  outsides  of  things,  unless  we  study  to  understand 
life  and  act  a  beneficent  part  in  it. 

As  children  we  are  rightly  put  to  task  work  in  order 
to  get  the  means  to  go  on  independently  using  life  and  all 
the  products  of  life  including  books,  in  order  to  minister 
toward  independent  thought  and  life.  But  to  start  in 
with  rules  and  restrictions  when  we  are  older  and  life  it- 
self is  opening  before  us,  is  like  climbing  over  a  house  to 
unlock  the  gate  before  it.  Their  artificial  arrange- 
ments are  not  fitted  to  meet  actual  experience.  Actual 
experience  is  bound  to  laugh  at  their  exclusion  of  life. 
How  does  the  message  brought  by  Costard  and  Clowne 
bear  on  the  argument?  The  fooling  seems  to  be  the  dom- 
inant interest  in  Scene  ii.  Is  it,  nevertheless,  only  the 
vehicle  by  which  the  theme  is  developed?  Show  how 
also  not  alone  by  the  confession  Armado  makes  but  also 
by  the  words  in  which  he  expressed  it,  the  theme  of  the 
conflict  of  Love  against  the  vow  foreswearing  it  is  made 
clear.  Notice,  too,  that  the  symptom,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
labour  of  Love  or  Cupid  as  opposed  to  the  Herculean  la- 
bor of  "warre  against  your  owne  affections"  is  at  once 
made  evident  in  Armando.  This  symptom  is  the  desire 
to  write  a  Sonnet.  In  what  way,  then,  does  it  appear  from 
the  Story  of  Act  I,  that  witness  will  be  borne  to  the  suc- 
cess of  love's  labor  over  the  vow  of  the  Achademe? 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S  LOST  43 

Does  the  sprightliness  of  the  second  scene  obscure  the 
scheme  of  the  play  advantageously  or  disadvantageously? 

ACT  II 

THE  EMBASSY  versus  THE  VOW 

How  is  it  made  apparent  that  the  effect  of  the  Em- 
bassy of  France  to  Navarre  will  be  on  the  side  of  Love 
against  the  Vow  ?  The  ladies'  remarks  upon  the  students 
of  the  Achademe  throw  light  upon  themselves  and  the 
drift  of  the  story  as  well  as  upon  their  subjects.  Show 
what  may  be  gathered  from  their  speeches?  What  does 
the  Princess  gather  from  them? 

The  King  does  not  invite  the  Princess  to  his  Court,  and 
declares  he  will  not  violate  his  vow.  Nevertheless  he  does 
do  so.  In  what  respect  ?  Boyet's  observation  of  him  goes 
still  farther.  What  is  this?  And  how  does  it  seem  to  be 
justified  ?  Is  Boyet's  conclusion  that  "Navar  is  affected," 
more  a  means  of  telling  the  Audience  what  is  about  to 
happen,  than  comment  on  what  is  to  be  seen?  Or  is  it 
of  use  to  show  the  Actor  of  the  King's  part  how  he  must 
bear  himself?  How  does  it  fit  with  the  name  and  scheme 
of  the  Play  that  Boyet  who  thinks  the  King  has  already 
fallen  in  love  should  be  called  Cupid's  grandfather? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  does  the  Princess  discount  Boyet's  remarks  and 
accuse  him  of  joking?  Does  she  give  any  clew  to  her  own 
feelings  ? 


44  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ACT  III 

THE  CLOWN  AS  A  LETTER-CARRIER 

Why  is  it  in  keeping  with  the  Play  that  Berowne  should 
be  the  first  of  the  Lords  to  be  foresworn? 

In  making  Armado  the  keeper  of  Costard,  the  Clown's 
breaking  of  the  vow  has  already  been  satirized  by  the 
King's  own  act.  Armado  now  takes  his  next  turn  at  mak- 
ing Costard's  sentence  a  hollow  mockery  by  sending  him 
as  a  messenger  to  Jacquenetta,  How  is  this  first  letter- 
carrying  made  to  lead  to  a  second,  doubling  the  mockery 
and  promising  new  confusions? 

Has  Moth  anything  to  do  with  the  scheme  of  the  Play? 

Who  is  the  "Boy"  of  whom  Berowne  speaks  repeatedly 
in  his  speech  concluding  this  Act?  What  is  the  bearing 
of  the  reference  to  him  upon  the  Play? 

How  is  the  joke  of  the  rhyme  in  which  the  Boy  got 
the  better  of  his  Master  by  selling  him  the  "Goose"  to  be 
explained?  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  interpola- 
tion from  the  Quarto,  i.  e.,  the  lines  put  between  brackets 
in  the  "First  Folio  Edition"  (p.  31)  are  necessary.  It 
is  better  however,  to  leave  them  out,  as  they  are  left  out 
in  the  Folio  text,  if  it  is  understood  that  the  Boy  Moth, 
repeats  11.  91-92,  after  Armado  has  said  them.  Then 
Armado  begins  the  "lenvoy"  with  the  intention  that  the 
Boy  will  also  repeat  that  and  that  being  the  end,  turn  the 
laugh  on  himself  by  calling  himself  the  Goose.  But  the 
Boy  is  too  clever.  He  says  it  ends  where  it  should.  Cos- 
tard declares  the  Boy  has  sold  him,  and  both  laugh  to  the 
bewilderment  of  Armado.  If  the  Page  added  the  "len- 


LOVE'S   LABOUR'S   LOST  45 

voy"  as  the  Quarto  puts  it  the  joke  would  already  have 
been  turned  against  him.  The  explanation  has  to  be 
very  elaborate  and  the  poor  little  joke  is  too  thin  to  stand 
it,  if  both  texts  be  followed.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
repetition  by  the  Page  of  11.  91  and  92,  on  the  stage,  con- 
fused the  hearer  who  set  it  down  for  the  publisher  of  the 
Quarto,  and  also  that  the  repetition  would  be  a  part  of 
the  stage  business  and  the  lines  might  not  appear  twice 
therefore  in  the  MS.  of  the  Play  itself.  The  question 
growing  out  of  this  is — Ought  not  the  bracketed  part  of 
the  text  to  be  left  out? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  does  Berowne  say  that  he  loves  "the  worst  of  all" 
(III,  i,  193)  ?  Is  this  true?  Does  he  think  it  true?  Does 
it  refer  to  her  looks,  or  her  disposition,  or  her  brain  ?  Is  it 
said  of  her  because  she  is  the  cleverest,  and  does  Berowne 
really  share  the  common  prejudice  of  the  male  against  a 
superior  woman  or  only  pretend  to  ? 

ACT  IV 

BEROWNE  HEARS  SOME  SONNETS  AND  THE  KING  RECEIVES 
A   LETTER 

Does  the  Princess  guess  the  truth  of  the  matter  when 
Costard  delivers  the  wrong  letter  for  Rosaline? 

What  relation  has  the  second  scene  of  Act  IV  to  the 
Play?  Of  what  use  to  the  preceding  action,  and  to  the 
present?  Of  what  use  are  all  these  new  characters  to  the 
Plot?  One  has  been  before  heard  from,  but  is  he  of  the 


46  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

most  or  least  use  here?  Are  they  of  use  to  the  story  in 
any  other  way,  later?  In  what  respects  do  their  tricks  of 
speech  and  affectation  of  learning  suit  the  aim  of  the 
Comedy?  Show  how  the  Sonnet-writing  is  made  the 
means  of  unmasking  the  lovers  to  each  other  and  all  of 
them  to  Berowne.  Are  the  sonnets  suited  to  the  charac- 
ters of  the  writers?  Contrast  the  King's  and  Berowne's 
in  this  respect.  Does  the  King  suspect  Berowne  before 
Jaquenetta  brings  her  letter?  Why  does  Jaquenetta  say 
it  was  treason?  Would  Berowne  have  confessed  if  he 
were  not  forced  to?  After  having  so  unmercifully  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  the  others  in  condemning  them  for 
doing  what  each  was  equally  involved  in,  the  climax  of 
forced  confession  from  him  is  more  amusing  than  if  any 
one  of  them  had  unmasked  him,  as  Longaville  did  Du- 
main,  the  King  Longaville,  and  Berowne  the  King. 
What  special  fitness  was  there  in  making  Dumane  find  out 
that  the  torn  letter  was  in  Berowne's  hand  and  bore  his 
signature  ? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Berowne's  speech  to  "salve"  their  "perjury"  (IV, 
iii,  309-383)  the  moral  of  the  piece?  If  so  why  should 
not  the  Play  end  here?  How  does  Berowne's  final  speech 
in  this  Act  foreshadow  the  conclusion  of  the  Play  ? 

ACTV 

SPORT  IS    BY  SPORT  OVERTHROWN 

What  were  the  main  events  of  the  last  Act  and  of  this 
one,  and  how  do  they  bear  upon  one  another? 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S   LOST  47 

Why  is  the  revenge  planned  by  the  Princess  both  fair 
and  prudent?  Are  the  men  more  in  earnest  than  they 
seem  ?  Do  the  women  seem  less  in  earnest  than  they  are  ? 
Which  man  first  draws  a  lesson  from  being  outwitted, 
and  how  is  it  justified?  Show  how  this  lesson  suits  the 
trend  of  the  Play,  and  advances  upon  the  outcome  of  the 
preceding  Act.  To  whom  is  Berowne's  line  (V,  ii,  477) 
— "Speake  for  yourselves,  my  wit  is  at  an  end" — ad- 
dressed? H'ow  is  the  King  brought  to  confusion?  Is 
the  Princess  too  hard  upon  him?  Why  does  Berowne 
scoff  so  fiercely  at  Boyet? 

Is  the  presentation  of  the  Nine  Worthies  too  absurd  in 
itself  to  mix  well  with  the  courtliness,  learning,  and  elab- 
orate wit  of  the  rest  of  the  Play?  Note  Berowne's  de- 
fence of  it  (V,  ii,  569-571)  and  his  rebuke  to  the  King  for 
despising  it?  The  Princess's  defence  of  it  and  its  corres- 
pondence with  that  of  Theseus  for  the  show  of  the  "base 
mechanicals"  in  the  "Midsommer  Nights  Dreame."  How 
does  Berowne's  humility  in  accepting  the  parallel  with 
their  own  wit-overthrown  mask  agree  with  his  boisterous 
jeering  at  the  mask  of  the  Nine  Worthies  later?  How 
does  the  attitude  of  the  ladies  toward  it  compare  with 
that  of  the  men  and  what  comment  upon  it  does  it  consti- 
tute in  your  opinion  ?  How  does  it  all  prepare  the  way  for 
the  sudden  sad  message,  and  also  for  the  decision  of  the  La- 
dies to  rebuff  love  that  is  not  serious  ?  What  special  point 
is  there  in  the  kind  of  trial  Rosaline  and  her  mistress  each 
specially  propose  for  Berowne  and  the  King?  Has  it  any 
relation  to  what  has  just  been  shown  of  each  of  them  in 
their  attitude  towards  others  with  respect  to  the  humble 


48  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

performers  of  the  Mask  of  the  Nine  Worthies?    What 
makes  wit  an  unalloyed  pleasure? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  serious  ending  of  this  Comedy  a  disappointment  ? 
Is  seriousness  an  ending  artistically  called  for  by  this  plot, 
or  only  morally  called  for?  Compare  with  the  serious 
strain  in  the  "Comedie  of  Errors."  What  does  the  con- 
tradictory little  final  dialogue  between  Winter  and 
Spring  add  to  the  significance  of  the  Play? 

VI 

THE  WIT  OF  THE   PLAY 

Tli is  has  been  called  by  Armitage  Brown,  "A  Comedy 
of  Conversation";  and  the  quibbles  in  which  the  Play 
abounds  have  been  supposed  by  Dr.  Johnson  to  give  the 
Author  "such  delight,  that  he  was  content  to  sacrifice  rea- 
son propriety  and  truth"  for  their  sake.  How  far  do 
these  observations  justly  apply  to  the  Play? 

In  what  degree  is  the  extravagant  banter  of  the  Play 
itself  an  imitation  of  current  fashions  of  speech  and  itself 
an  object  of  ridicule? 

Its  relations  to  Lyly  and  Euphuism.  (See  Extracts  from 
Ward  and  from  Landmann  in  "Selected  Criticism,"  in 
First  Folio  Edition  of  the  Play). 

Make  a  study  of  the  lesser  and  larger  wit  of  the  play, 
showing  how  the  former  is  merely  incidental  to  the  latter. 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S  LOST  49 

In  what  respects  is  the  whimsical  talk  of  the  Play  suited 
to  certain  groups  and  to  special  characters,  so  that  there 
is  more  variety  in  it  than  appears  at  first. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  the  master  wit  of  the  Play  consist  in  any  one  class 
of  fun,  as  verbal  conceits  in  the  punning  line;  practical 
jokes;  Euphuism,  so-called;  banter  in  speech  and  retort, 
versemaking  and  sonneteering,  learned  quips,  or  in  the 
use  of  all  these  combined  in  a  way  to  bring  out  the  point 
of  the  Play — the  clash  of  natural  with  artificial  methods. 

Is  wit  or  purpose  dominant  in  the  Play? 

Which  is  the  wittiest  scene?  Is  it  also  the  most  mor- 
ally significant? 

VII 

THE    CHARACTERS 

Three  groups  of  characters  appear  in  the  play — the 
main  group  belonging  to  the  Court;  the  learned  group, 
Armado,  the  schoolmaster,  and  the  Curate ;  and  the  native 
group,  Costard,  Jaquenetta,  Dull,  and  Moth.  The  two 
latter  subordinate  groups  add  much  to  the  Play.  Show  in 
what  respects:  as  to  Plot  interest  what  do  they  add?  As 
to  merriment  and  significance?  Is  the  morality  and  wit 
of  the  Play  contributed  to  by  them  ?  Are  they  of  interest 
in  themselves,  apart  from  their  relation  to  the  other  char- 
acters? Are  Costard  and  Jaquenetta  the  only  happy 


50  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

lovers  in  the  Play?    Why? 

Is  the  King,  kingly?  In  what  respects,  do  you  think, 
does  he  evince  youth  and  inexperience?  When  does  he 
begin  seriously  to  be  in  love?  Is  the  Princess  justified  in 
disciplining  him?  How  much  of  her  discipline  is  due  to 
the  event  that  cuts  short  the  Play?  Judging  from  his 
character,  do  you  think  he  will  stand  the  "twelvemonth" 
test? 

Is  Berowne  the  oldest  as  well  as  the  deepest  and  wisest 
of  the  men?  How  does  he  show  all  this? 

Why  does  Rosaline  discipline  him?  Is  she  in  insight 
superior  to  him  as  the  Princess  is  to  the  King?  Are  the 
other  court  ladies  equally  wise  in  the  probation  period 
they  allot? 

Are  all  the  men — Costard  included — so  much  a  prey 
to  a  sort  of  foppery  of  expression  and  love  of  animal  spirits 
as  to  be  properly  subject  to  the  satire  the  play  provides 
for  them?  Are  the  women  more  sane  in  this  respect,  de- 
spite their  wit,  or  not? 

Is  Shakespeare  apparently  on  the  women's  side? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Costard  the  bumpkin  the  best  actor  in  the  Mask  of 
the  Worthies?  Why?  Why  is  Jaquenetta  the  least  and 
Moth  the  most  discomfitted  of  the  third  group  of  char- 
acters ? 

Dowden  says  the  women  of  the  Play  "have  not  the  en- 
tire advantage  on  their  side  ."  What  do  they  lack?  He 
also  says,  to  bear  this  out,  that  "Berowne  is  yet  a  larger 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S  LOST  SI 

nature  than  the  Princess  or  Rosaline."  What  has  this  to 
do  with  their  relative  advantage  in  the  Play  itself,  as 
Shakespeare  shows  it? 

Who  are  the  critics  of  the  falseness  of  artifice  in  the 
Play?  Is  Berowne  on  the  women's  side  in  the  criticism 
which  gives  them  their  advantage? 

VIII 

THE  MORAL  OF  THE  PLAY 

Is  there  a  moral  against  the  current  educational  methods 
and  the  affectations  social  and  literary  of  Shakespeare's 
time?  The  monastic  and  aristocratic  elements  in  educa- 
tion considered  as  opposed  to  the  progress  of  Women  and 
the  People.  Show  the  general  conditions  of  education  pre- 
vailing after  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  new  spirit  of  the 
Renascence  making  itself  felt,  also  the  degree  in  which 
this  appears  in  this  plot.  If  Shakespeare's  spirit,  as  mani- 
fested in  this  Play,  had  been  more  influential  practically, 
do  you  think  a  different  road  would  have  been  taken? 
(For  hints  upon  this  line  of  thought  see  Introduction  in 
the  "First  Folio  Edition").  How  far  is  Berowne  to  be 
taken  as  the  spokesman  of  Shakespeare  ?  Note  what  Pater 
says  of  him  as  "a  reflex  of  Shakespeare  himself,"  and 
trace  the  truth  of  this  as  concerns  the  fact  that  he  is  never 
"quite  in  touch"  with  the  level  of  the  understanding 
shown  by  others  of  the  Play,  and  state  the  bearing  this  has 
upon  the  Moral  of  the  Play.  (See  Pater's  "Appreciations" 
or  extract  from  same  in  "Selected  Criticism,"  pp.  242-248, 
"First  Folio  Edition"). 


52  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Why  does  so  frolicsome  a  Comedy  end  so  seriously? 
Does  that  make  it  funnier? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  there  really  a  moral  in  the  Play  in  favor  of  nature 
and  sincerity  or  is  it  merely  read  into  it? 

Is  Dowden  right,  who  says  "there  is  a  serious  intention 
in  the  play,"  or  Barrett  Wendell  who  says :  "like  modern 
comic  opera,  such  essentially  lyric  work  as  this  has  no  pro- 
found meaning;  its  object  is  just  to  delight,  to  amuse; 
whoever  searches  for  significance  in  such  literature  misun- 
derstands it." 

In  comparison  with  other  comedies  of  Shakespeare,  is 
a  serious  undercurrent  discernible  in  all  of  them,  but  none 
in  this? 


IX 


("THE 
PRINCESS")  UPON  EDUCATION  OF  MEN  AND  WOMEN 

Summarize  story  and  outcome  of  Play  and  Poem  in 
comparison  and  in  contrast.  Does  Shakespeare's  exposi- 
tion of  the  contemporary  view  of  education  account  for 
the  condition  Tennyson  criticises?  If  so,  are  women  to 
blame  for  it?  If  not,  how  much  does  this  modify  Tenny- 
son's criticism  of  the  educational  exclusion  that  is  the 
scheme  of  the  College  in  "The  Princess?"  Shakespeare 
seems  to  point  his  moral  against  his  male  characters  for 


LOVE'S  LABOUR'S  LOST  53 

their  exclusiveness,  Tennyson  against  his  women  char- 
acters? Which  one  goes  the  deeper?  Wherein  do  they 
agree  and  disagree?  How  may  they  be  made  to  supple- 
ment each  other?  Has  Tennyson's  poem  presented  any 
phase  of  the  question  touching  upon  popular  interest  in  ex- 
clusive educational  schemes?  Is  Shakespeare,  considering 
his  time,  the  more  democratic  in  his  views  of  life,  as 
shown  by  this  Play,  in  comparison  with  those  brought  out 
in  Tennyson's  Poem.  Why  does  Shakespeare  leave  the 
women  in  moral  and  actual  command  of  the  situation  ? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  co-education  the  right  conclusion  to  draw  from  the 
exposition  by  the  Poets  of  educational  restraints  and  the 
relation  of  men  and  women  to  life? 

What  ideals  of  life  as  to  Nature  and  Education  must 
be  included  in  educational  schemes?  Why  does  the  Play 
not  end  with  as  many  marriages  as  there  are  lovers?  Is 
it  possibly  because  Shakespeare  did  not  mean  to  bring  for- 
ward love  between  man  and  woman  as  if  it  were  the  only 
thing  in  life  but  as  the  typical  experience  of  life  that 
should  open  up  the  depths  of  knowledge  not  of  love  alone 
but  of  death  and  suffering  in  relation  to  it. 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING 

The  title  of  this  Comedy  broadly  describes  its  character, 
and  is  based  upon  the  Double  meaning  of  ffiotfajng."  The 
events  that  constitute  the  plot  are  the  result  of  "note-ing" 
or  overhearing  and  so  taking  note  of  events  which  are  de- 
ceptive in  some  way.  Hence,  in  all  the  "note-ing"  that 
takes  place,  there  is,  after  all  "nothing,"  and  the  whole 
amusing  plot  constitutes  much  ado  about  nothing.  The 
letter  "h"  in  Nothing  was  often  silent  in  Elizabethan  pro- 
nunciation. The  "h"  in  "Moth"  in  "Loves  Labour's 
Lost"  is  another  example. 

Noting  or  overhearing  as  a  factor  of  the  plot  is  intro- 
duced also  in  "Loves  Labour's  Lost."  It  is  one  of  several 
links  in  workmanship  with  that  Play  and  its  use  there 
may  have  suggested  the  production  of  a  Play  almost  alto- 
gether built,  as  this  is,  on  overhearing  or  taking  critical 
notice  such  as  Benedicke  and  Beatrice  take  of  each  other. 

The  part  of  the  plot  that  is  based  on  an  already  existent 
story  does  not  develop  this  noteing  element  particularly. 
For  that  reason  it  is  the  likelier  that  it  is  a  device  of 
Shakespeare's  to  make  up  his  Comedy. 

ACT  I 

CLAUDIO  NOTES  HERO  WITH   FAVOR  AND  IS  NOTED  WITH 
DISFAVOR 

The  Story  of  Act  I  results,  on  the  arrival  of  the  Prince 
and  his  suite,  in  making  it  known  that  Claudio  has  noted 

54 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING        55 

Hero  as  "the  sweetest  Ladie"  that  ever  he  "lookt  on." 
Show  how  it  also  comes  out  in  Scene  i  that  a  noting  of  a 
severer  kind  has  passed  between  Benedicke  and  Beatrice. 
The  two  kinds  of  special  interest — the  openly  admiring 
noting  of  Claudio,  and  the  captious  notice  of  each  other 
shown  by  Beatrice  and  Benedicke,  initiate  the  two  chan- 
nels of  action  in  which  the  plot  will  run.  The  normal 
sex-agreement  of  the  one  pair  of  characters  is  varied  by 
contrast  with  the  more  unusual  sex-warfare  that  asserts 
itself  humorously  both  in  Beatrice  and  Benedicke.  Bring 
out  pertinent  examples  of  their  defiance  of  love  and  mar- 
riage. 

What  is  to  be  gathered  of  Hero  and  her  point  of  view 
from  this  Act?  How  much  from  others,  from  little  from 
herself?  And  how  much  from  her  of  others?  Contrast 
with  hers  the  witness  given  of  herself  by  Beatrice.  Is 
Claudio  taciturn,  too,  when  compared  with  Benedicke? 

What  noting  goes  on  in  scene  ii?  Is  it  in  accordance 
with  what  has  already  taken  place  between  Claudio  and 
the  Prince?  What  additional  noting  comes  out  in  Sc.  iii. 
Is  this  in  accordance  with  Scene  i  or  Scene  ii?  Act  I 
closes  with  a  sense  of  some  confusion  which  Act  II  is  re- 
quired to  clear  up.  In  addition  to  the  inconsistency,  no- 
tice Don  John's  enmity  to  Claudio,  and  its  menace  of 
disaster. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  inconsistency  of  the  last  three  scenes  misleading 
and  puzzling  rather  than  alluring  to  the  curiosity  of  the 
reader  ? 


56  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Could  it  be  made  more  interesting  on  the  stage  by  the 
way  of  enacting  the  part  of  Brother  Anthony? 

ACT  II 


THE  PRINCE  PLOTS  FOR  TRUE  NOTING  AND  HIS  BROTHER 
FOR    FALSE 

i 

Tell  the  story  of  the  masked  ball.  What  new  light  is 
thrown,  first,  on  the  characters  and,  then,  on  the  plot  by 
means  of  these  fragmentary  bits  of  dialogue  heard  as  the 
revellers  pass  on  and  off  stage  together. 

Is  Don  John  really  misled  as  to  his  Brother's  intentions 
toward  Hero? 

What  does  Hero  herself  think? 

Does  Don  Pedro  himself  show  that  he  is  acting  for  an- 
other— that  the  god,  Love,  dwells  beneath  his  visor? 
The  modernized  edition  spoils  one  of  the  references  to  this 
office  in  which  the  Prince  labors  for  Love  and  does  a  labor 
of  love  in  whose  disinterestedness  some  doubt  is  expressed. 
By  changing  Love  to  Jove  (in  II,  i,  92)  a  literal  correc- 
tion is  made  in  accord  with  the  legend  referred  to,  but  in 
entire  destruction  of  the  point  made  by  the  Prince,  if 
Shakespeare  means  to  adapt  the  allusion  to  his  special 
purpose.  Note  also  Benedicke's  name  for  Claudio  (II, 
iii,  34).  What  is  your  opinion  of  this?  (See  Note  on 
II,  i,  91,  in  "First  Folio  Edition" ).  Compare  another  in- 
stance where  the  Prince  shows  that  he  is  acting  for  Cupid 
(II,  i,  358-367).  Is  Don  Pedro  the  most  active  spirit  in 
the  plot?  Show  how  in  Acts  I  and  II,  it  is  made  clear 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING        57 

that  the  plot  will  consist  in  the  prevalence  of  either  a 
favorable  or  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  happiness  of 
the  characters.  Who  represents  each  influence? 

Notice  that  the  favorable  influence  in  its  first  action  in 
favor  of  Claudio's  happiness  is  misunderstood,  discounted 
and  disbelieved  in  several  directions.  Is  Claudio  led  to 
distrust  of  the  Prince  by  others  or  by  his  own  jealousy? 

In  the  second  action  of  the  favorable  influence  initiated 
by  the  Prince,  which  of  the  characters  share?  Does  the 
unfavorable  influence  work  against  Benedicke's  happiness? 

What  is  Borachio's  place  in  the  action  of  the  unfavora- 
ble influence? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Noteing  or  overhearing  is  itself  nothing  or  has  a  large 
element  of  the  deceptive  in  it.  How  is  it  made  to  work 
well  in  Benedicke's  case?  Is  the  element  of  truth  the  only 
one  that  is  effective? 

ACT  III 

THE  NOTE-ING  IS  NOTED 

Show  that  the  action  taking  the  Story  on  consists  in 
the  "note-ing"  already  planned  being  enacted  and  being 
noted  as  true.  How  does  this  work  with  Beatrice  in 

Scene  i? 

In  Scene  ii  the  unfavorable  influence  makes  its  prep- 
aration to  carry  on  the  plot  disastrously  by  the  same 


58  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

method.     How  is  this  made  clear? 

In  Scene  iii  the  "note-ing"  is  as  effective  for  evil  as  that 
in  scene  i,  is  for  good.  But  a  counter  influence  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  it  which  consists  in  "noteing"  the  falsity  of 
the  first  "noteing."  Show  how  this  is  arranged  and  prom- 
ises to  solve  all  difficulty.  But  the  marriage  is  shown  next 
to  be  in  active  preparation,  and  then  the  promise  of  inter- 
vention in  time  to  frustrate  Hero's  disgrace  is  in  scene  v 
itself  frustrated  by  the  bestowal  of  all  Dogberry's 
"tediousness"  upon  Leonato  and  by  his  own  impatience. 
Show  the  place  in  the  action  of  the  hurrying  on  of  scene 
iv,  and  the  tediousness  of  scene  v,  and  of  both  on  the 
humor  of  the  Play. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Are  the  Prince  and  Claudio  justified  in  the  action  they 
propose  ? 

Is  the  element  of  chance,  which  both  destroys  the  false- 
ness of  the  evidence  by  means  of  Borachio's  talk,  and  pre- 
vents it  from  being  known  by  Dogberry's,  especially  fit- 
ting? Why? 

ACT  IV 

HERO  IS  REPUDIATED  AND  BEFRIENDED 

Does  Claudio's  demeanor  in  the  repudiation  scene  be- 
tray the  violence  of  love? 
What  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  Prince's  words  and 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING        59 

those  of  his  bastard  brother  Don  John? 

Is  it  natural  for  Leonato  to  be  convinced  and  to  know 
his  daughter  no  better? 

Why  is  the  Friar  on  her  side?  Notice  how  the  Friar 
represents  the  Church  as  Dogberry  does  the  Law.  As  in- 
stitutional forces  of  civic  life,  outside  the  circle  of  the 
central  group  of  characters,  they  intervene  in  the  action  of 
the  drama  when  it  is  properly  amenable  to  outside  influ- 
ences and  civic  instrumentalities.  And  both  are  brought 
into  the  sphere  of  the  Play  by  a  means  in  sympathy  with 
the  artistic  method  belonging  to  it.  Observe  how  Dog- 
berry is  made  humorously  to  desire  to  have  everything 
noted  down,  and  how  the  Friar  has  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  Hero  is  innocent  "by  noting  of  the  Ladie."  With 
the  Friar  on  her  side,  Hero  and  her  one  staunch  friend — 
Beatrice  are  enabled  to  follow  a  policy  of  resistance  to 
her  disgrace  and  of  re-establishment,  first,  of  her  good  fame 
and,  then,  of  her  happiness.  How  is  this  brought  about? 
The  share  of  the  Friar  in  rallying  her  friends  to  be  loyal, 
and  the  share  of  Beatrice  in  instituting  a  counter-move- 
ment to  the  accusation  combine  to  what  effect?  How 
does  it  suit  with  the  scheme  of  the  action  that  the  love  of 
Benedicke  and  Beatrice  here  attains  its  climax? 

What  does  scene  ii  accomplish  for  the  plot? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

I 
t 

Is  the  injection  of  tragedy  at  this  Fourth  Act  into  the 
Comedy  effective?  Does  it  change  the  character  of  the 
Comedy  or  merely  intensify  it? 


60  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Does  Beatrice  ask  an  unreasonable  deed  of  Benedicke 
when  she  says  "Kill  Claudio"?  Suppose  it  were  to  prove 
true,  instead  of  to  be  prevented  as  may  be  already  guessed, 
by  the  defeat  of  Don  John's  false  witness  and  evil  influ- 
ence: Is  Beatrice  justified  in  refusing  Benedicke  if  he  will 
not  kill  his  friend  because  it  shows  "there  is  no  love"  in 
him? 

ACT  V 

THE   DOUBLE   WEDDING 

The  valor  and  humor  of  the  two  old  men  against  the 
two  young  ones  has  especial  value  in  restoring  the  comic 
vein.  How  does  this  somewhat  belated  loyalty  of  Leonato 
act  upon  our  sympathy  with  him?  Does  the  forbearance 
of  Claudio  and  the  Prince  toward  the  two  men  raise  our 
esteem  of  them  or  lead  to  further  dislike? 

What  effect  has  the  mock  heroics  of  their  ineffective 
challenge  on  Benedicke's  earnest  championship  of  Hero? 
Is  the  Prince's  satiric  speech  (V,  i,  208-209)  to  be  inter- 
preted as  complimentary  to  Benedicke?  Notice  Claudio's 
next  speech  in  comment  upon  it,  and  explain  the  implica- 
tions intended. 

What  does  Leonato  mean  by  blaming  Borachio  less  than 
the  three  nobles?  How  far  do  you  think  him  justified — the 
relations  of  master  to  man  at  the  time  being  considered? 

Was  Margaret  to  blame?  Why  did  she  not  make  the 
cheat  known?  (Cf.  V,  iv,  5-7  with  V,  i,  311-314).  Is  it 
worth  while  to  spend  much  time  on  making  all  minor 
details  clear? 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING        61 

Is  Claudio's  consent  to  a  second  marriage  creditable, 
natural,  or  a  clumsy  expedient  which  only  the  entire  hol- 
lowness  of  the  whole  plot  of  false  noting  as  to  Hero  ren- 
ders endurable?  Can  you  imagine  any  way  of  acting  the 
part  of  Claudio  that  would  make  it  seem  attractive? 

Do  you  find  it  in  character  at  the  wedding  that  one 
couple  says  so  little,  the  other  so  much? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  ending  of  the  Plot  happily  contrived  in  too  forced 
and  unreal  a  way? 

Which  is  the  most  stirring  scheme  in  the  Play  and 
why? 

Which  is  the  funniest,  and  is  it  possible  to  say  why? 

THE  CHARACTERS 

Does  this  Play  succeed  in  giving  so  extremely  definite 
and  varied  an  impression  of  the  characters  that  it  is  chief- 
ly notable  for  that  ?  To  bring  out  this  idea  of  the  plot  as 
successful  less  in  itself  than  because  it  illuminates  the  qual- 
ity and  humor  of  the  characters,  compare  with  the  "Com- 
edie  of  Errors"  or  any  of  the  Plays  where  events  figure 
more  prominently.  Show  how  the  events  of  this  Play 
may  be  said  to  be  created  by  the  Characters.  The  Prince 
and  his  Brother  (and  their  tools  on  each  side  who  lend 
themselves  to  their  plans  with  Dogberry,  the  highly  un- 
conscious, and  the  Friar,  the  highly  conscious  character) 
by  being  what  they  are  constitute  the  diverse  means  of 


62  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

influencing  the  whole  turn  of  events.  These  persons  may 
all  be  considered  with  reference  to  what  they  are  them- 
selves, in  character,  and  through  that,  in  relation  to  the 
other  characters  of  the  Comedy. 

BENEDICKE  AND  BEATRICE,  CLAUDIO  AND  HERO 

These  two  loving  couples  reveal  their  special  characters 
most  vividly  by  means  of  their  contrasting  and  supple- 
mentary relations  to  each  other.  Show  how  Benedicke 
and  Beatrice  do  not  throw  Claudio  and  Hero  too  much  in 
the  shade  by  their  superior  brilliancy,  because  through  the 
love  of  the  minor  couple  their  own  love  is  enabled  to  rip- 
en. Is  their  character  heightened  or  lessened  in  wit  and 
individual  interest  by  love? 

The  minor  characters:  Show  how  the  adversity  of  the 
family  brings  out  the  heroic  element  lying  unobserved  in 
Brother  Anthony  of  the  "dry  hand,"  and  kindles  his  phil- 
osophy into  something  martial. 

The  merry  maids,  Ursula  and  Margaret  and  their  light- 
hearted  parts  in  the  plot. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Beatrice  "is  a  tarter, — and,  if  a  natural  woman,  is  not 
a  pleasing  representative  of  her  sex."  She  "will  provoke 
her  Benedicke  to  give  her  much  and  just  conjugal  castiga- 
tion,"  says  Campbell.  Is  he  right,  and  will  Benedicke 
feel  so? — or  is  Swinburne  right,  who  says  she  is  "a  de- 
cidedly more  perfect  woman  than  could  properly  or  per- 


MUCH  ADOE  ABOUT  NOTHING        63 

missibly  have  trod  the  stage  of  Congreve  or  Moliere"  and 
who  speaks  of  her  "light  true  heart"  ? 

Is  the  superficial  Claudio  worthy  of  Hero? 

Are  the  faults  in  the  plot  of  the  Play,  such  as  are  neces- 
sitated by  the  design  of  using  the  characters  themselves 
and  their  "noting"  of  one  another  as  the  source  of  events, 
and,  therefore,  in  the  last  analysis  not  faults,  a  study  of 
their  relation  to  the  design  leading  us,  as  Hartley  Cole- 
ridge puts  it,  never  to  censure  Shakespeare  without  finding 
reason  to  eat  our  words? 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME 

Having  read  "A  Midsommcr  Nights  Dreame"  as  a 
whole,  if  it  be  not  already  fresh  in  the  mind,  or,  if  pos- 
sible, having  seen  it  acted,  then  consider  more  carefully  the 
characteristics  of  its  dramatic  structure,  studying  the  plot 
and  progress  of  the  story  as  it  is  unfolded  act  by  act,  also 
the  sources,  the  characters,  and  so  forth,  as  suggested  in 
the  following  study. 

ACT  I 

THE  CROSSED   LOVERS 

Sum  up  the  incidents  and  characters  introduced  in  the 
first  Act  and  ascertain  which  are  most  important  in  influ- 
encing the  rest  of  the  story. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  Theseus  and  Hippolyta  and  their 
marriage  festivities  are  personages  and  events  which  make 
up  a  decorative  external  sort  of  frame  for  the  whole  play, 
but  that  the  centre  of  the  action  takes  its  start,  primarily, 
from  the  conflict  of  Hermia's  love  for  Lysander  with  her 
father's  choice  of  Demetrius,  and,  secondarily,  from  the 
clash  of  Helena's  love  for  Demetrius  with  his  suit  for 
Hermia.  Show  how  the  brisk  bit  of  dialogue  between 
Hermia  and  Lysander  (I.  i.  141-166)  implies  the  forth- 
coming plot.  For  example,  it  may  be  shown  that  'to  be 
cnthrall'd  to  love'  (the  first  folio  reading  is  love  instead 

64 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       65 

of  low,  which  was  an  emendation  of  Theobald's,*)  and  to 
have  'sympathy  in  choice'  made  as  'momentary  as  a  sound, 
swift  as  a  shadow,  short  as  any  dream,'  is  to  be  the  fate 
of  all  the  lovers  in  the  play,  except  Theseus  and  Hip- 
polyta,  and  to  constitute  the  substance  of  the  action. 

Consider  what  relation  the  second  scene  has  to  the  story. 
Is  it  more  extraneous  to  the  movement  than  the  scene 
presenting  the  Duke  and  his  bride?  It  is  linked  to  the 
crossed  lovers  group,  on  the  one  side,  by  the  part  the  chief 
of  the  'rude  mechanicals,'  Bottom,  is  to  assume  with 
Titania,  although  this  does  not  appear  in  the  first  Act,  and 
Shakespeare's  intention  to  do  something  special  with  this 
character  is  only  shadowed  forth  here  by  its  prominence. 
On  the  other  side  it  is  linked  to  the  ducal  group  still  more 
superficially,  merely  by  the  rehearsal  of  a  piece  to  be 
played  at  the  wedding.  It  may  be  contrasted  with  the 
preparation  in  'Hamlet*  for  a  piece  similarly  played  before 
the  Court,  but  which  had  a  vital  connection  with  the  action 
and  characters  which  is  lacking  here.  Can  there  be  said 
to  be  an  artistic  design,  however,  though  of  a  more  external 
sort,  in  the  contrast  between  the  Court  scene  and  the 
rehearsal  scene,  and  the  realistic  offset  the  latter  scene 
supplies  to  the  fairy  fantasies  that  are  to  follow  in  the 
next  acts?  For  instance,  it  may  be  shown  that  the  mer- 
riment the  clownish  scene  provides  balances  the  dignity  of 
the  ducal  scene.  His  audience,  having  put  a  yoke  upon  the 
dramatists  by  requiring  a  clown,  his  genius  is  betokened 
here  by  his  making  it  an  artistic  advantage. 


*See  foot  note  in  First  Folio  edition. 


66  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

POINTS  i.  'The  ancient  privilege  of  Athens/  I.  i.  49. 
What  was  the  position  of  the  father  toward  the  family  in 
Attica?  2.  'On  Dian's  altar  to  protest,'  i.gS.  Did  the 
service  of  Diana  offer  women  a  respite  from  masculine 
dictation?  Compare  the  myth  of  Iphigenia's  salvation  by 
Diana.  3.  'To  that  place  the  sharp  Athenian  law  cannot 
pursue,'  i.  172.  What  Grecian  states  had  laws  more 
lenient  to  women?  4.  What  traces  can  be  found  in  his- 
tory or  legend  of  the  victory  of  Theseus  over  the  Ama- 
zons, and  the  rise  of  a  new  civic  order  on  the  ruins  of  a 
matriarchate ?  5.  The  story  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe  (see 
Chaucer's  'Legend  of  Good  Women'  for  an  early  English 
use  of  the  story).  6.  Explanation  of  allusions  to  Phoebe, 
Cupid,  Ercles,  etc. 

ACT  I 

QUERIES    FOR    DISCUSSION 

Upon  what  does  the  interest  centre  in  Act  I?  In  the 
marriage  of  Hippolyta  and  Theseus,  or  the  love  affairs  of 
the  four  lovers? 

Is  Hermia,  whose  determination  not  to  be  forced  to 
marry  starts  the  plot,  the  best-drawn  character  in  the  first 
Act? 

ACT  II 

THE  FAIRIES'  QUARREL 

Show  how  in  this  Act  a  new  agency  of  a  fairies'  quar- 
rel is  devised  and  set  forth. 

Point  out  how  this  is  made  to  crystallize  in  Oberon's 
scheme  for  revenge  on  Titania,  and  also  how,  in  the  course 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       67 

of  disentangling  their  own  love-snarl,  it  is  made  to  develop 
the  conflict  between  the  crossed  lovers.  This,  it  may  be 
emphasized,  is  the  second  step  in  the  movement,  as  Her- 
mia's  and  Helena's  love  was  the  first,  and  these  two  main 
factors  of  the  action  are  taken  up  together  in  this  act. 

Are  the  other  two  groups  which  were  introduced  in 
the  first  act,  the  Duke's  party  and  Bottom's  set,  inter- 
woven with  the  new  fairy  group  in  any  way  in  this  Act  r 
See  if  the  new  fairy  element  now  shows  any  disposition 
in  the  person  of  Oberon  to  smooth  out  the  difficulties  of 
the  mortals. 

Oberon's  intentions,  however,  were  one  thing,  and  his 
deeds  another.  Through  Puck  as  his  instrument,  his 
jealousy  at  once  begins  to  make  matters  worse  instead 
of  better  for  the  lovers.  Notice  the  delicate  appropriate- 
ness of  Oberon's  means  of  influence,  namely  Puck  and 
the  two  flowers,  the  first  being  'Cupid's  flower,' — Love  in 
idleness — the  second  'Dian's  bud,'  introduced  later  to  cor- 
rect the  influence  of  the  first.  The  first  flower  assists 
in  the  development  of  a  plot  which  is  to  enact  the  'mo- 
mentariness*  of  'sympathy  in  choice.'  The  cross-purpose, 
fostered  by  Puck's  mistake,  seems  to  provide  the  compa- 
ratively grosser  sort  of  merriment  for  this  Act  which  Bot- 
tom and  his  friends  supplied  for  the  first;  and  the  dainty 
humor  and  sprightly  novelty  attending  the  introduction 
of  the  fairies  on  the  scene,  the  description  of  their  quar- 
rel, and  the  foreshadowing  of  the  influence  they  are  to 
have  on  the  next  stages  of  the  story,  may  be  shown  to 
occupy  the  chief  place  in  the  plot  at  this  period,  the 
crossed  lovers,  who  predominated  in  the  first  Act,  now 


68  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

falling  into  a  relatively  subordinate  position. 

POINTS  i.  Robin  Goodfellow  and  the  traditions  about 
him.  2.  Fairies  and  changelings.  3.  The  stories  of 
Theseus's  loves.  4.  Explanation  of  allusions  to  nine  men's 
morris,  old  Hiems,  etc.  5.  Account  of  theories  as  to  mean- 
ing of  references  to  the  imperiall  votresse,  a  little  westerne 
flower,  a  mearemaide  on  a  dolphins  backe,  etc.  War- 
burton  says  the  mermaid  was  meant  for  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.  N.  H.  Halpin  thinks  that  by  Cynthia  is  meant 
Queen  Elizabeth;  by  Tellus,  Lady  Douglas;  by  the  lit- 
tle 'western  flower,'  Lettice,  wife  of  Walter,  Earl  of  Es- 
sex, while  Cupid  is  Leicester.  (See  "First  Folio  Edition" 
for  particulars).  6.  Explain  use  of  'Lob,'  II.  i.  15; 
'wodde,'  200.  7.  'The  starres  shot  madly  from  their 
Spheares,'  i.  159.  Look  up  Ptolemaic  system  of  astron- 
omy for  explanation  of  the  idea.  Compare  "Merchant  of 
Venice,"  V.  i.  71-75,  and  notes  on  same  in  "First  Folio 
Edition"  of  that  play.  8.  What  is  "Love  in  idleness"? 
(See  Introduction  to  "First  Folio  Edition"  of  "A  Mid- 
sommer  Nights  Dreame"  for-  references  to  this  flower  in 
Chaucer's  poem  of  "The  Flower  and  the  Leaf."  Com- 
pare "The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  I.  i.  156.  9.  What  are 
"Cankers"  in  the  musk  rosebuds?  II.  ii.  4. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  it  probable  that  the  various  passages  in  this  act  said 
to  allude  to  current  incidents  were  so  intended?  In  that 
case  what  effect  do  they  have  upon  the  beauty  of  a  Play 
set  in  Athens? 

Is  the  interest  of  this  Act  a  divided  one? 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       69 
ACT  III 

CROSS-EFFECTS  OF  OBERON's  SPELL 

Analyze  the  scenes  constituting  this  Act.  Observe  that 
scene  i.  takes  up  Bottom  and  his  fellows,  the  group  not 
as  yet  brought  into  relation  with  the  fairy  group,  and 
initiates  them  in  the  magic  of  fairy  land  by  means  of  the 
new  but  appropriate  head  Puck  bestows  upon  Bottom. 
Why  is  Bottom  picked  out  for  this  favor?  The  'ass-head' 
as  a  symbolic  piece  of  stage  furniture.  Show  how  this 
transformation  makes  the  mismating  of  Titania  with  Bot- 
tom more  gross  and  obvious  to  the  audience ;  also  how  this 
is  the  next  direct  effect  of  Oberon's  revenge. 

Notice  that  scene  ii.  takes  up  the  cross-effect  already 
worked  upon  Lysander  by  Puck's  mistake,  instead  of  on 
Demetrius,  as  Oberon  intended,  and  sets  forth  its  further 
effects  upon  Helena  and  Hermia.  The  dialogues  between 
the  two  pairs  of  lovers  now  overheard  by  Oberon  makes 
the  error  clear,  and  so  enables  him  to  take  the  first  step 
in  clearing  up  the  tangle.  Meantime,  the  poet  and  his 
audience  agree  with  Puck  that  they  are  so  far  'glad  it  so 
did  sort,  As  this  their  jangling'  is  esteemed  'a  sport/ 

POINTS  i.  Explain  'It  shall  be  written  in  eight  and 
sixc,'  III.  i.  23-4.  2.  The  custom  in  Shakespeare's  day 
as  to  the  women's  parts.  Would  it  have  been  as  amusing 
to  the  audience  then  as  it  would  be  to  us  when  Quince 
says  'Robin  Starveling,  you  play  Thisbies  mother'?  3- 
Pyramus  and  Thisbe.  This  may  have  been  derived  from 
Ovid,  or  from  Chaucer's  "Legend  of  Good  Women,"  or 


70  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

C.  Robinson's  "Handful  of  Pleasant  Delights."  (1504.) 
4.  Explain  'Two  of  the  first  like  coats  in  heraldry,'  III. 
ii.  220.  5.  Describe  the  personal  appearance  of  the  hero- 
ines from  the  references  made. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Puck  or  Bottom  the  presiding  genius  of  this  act? 

Does  the  jangling  between  the  two  women  belittle 
them  as  heroines,  and  is  it,  therefore,  a  blot  upon  the  beau- 
ty of  the  play? 

ACT  IV 


Trace  throughout  this  act  the  smoothing-out  process. 

Why  does  Oberon  himself  release  Titania  while  Puck 
is  made  to  minister  to  the  other  victims  of  the  charm? 
Is  Oberon's  explanation  of  the  Fairy  Queen's  sudden 
change  of  heart  about  the  changeling  quite  satisfactory, 
or  does  it  simply  appear  so  by  a  sort  of  artistic  sleight-of- 
hand  characteristic  of  Shakespeare  in  small  touches  at  the 
close  of  a  plot? 

Show  how  poetically  suitable  as  a  stage  effect  the  en- 
try of  Theseus  and  his  huntsmen  is, — shedding  the  first 
rays  of  morning  on  the  night-enchanted  lovers. 

Why  is  Bottom  made  to  waken  last?  Perhaps  because 
he  helps  to  denote  the  prose  of  broad  daylight.  Show 
what  relation  scene  ii.  has  to  the  completion  of  the  smooth- 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       71 

ing-out  process. 

POINTS,  i.  'I  was  with  Hercules  and  Cadmus  once,' 
IV.  i.  126.  What  relation  had  Hippolyta  to  these  Greek 
heroes?  2.  Account  of  May-day  rites.  3.  Traditions  of 
St.  Valentine.  4.  Rites  of  Midsummer  Eve. 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  is  the  choice  of  Hermia's  father  for  her  no  longer 
supported  by  the  Duke?  Does  this  imply  a  criticism  on 
the  inconsistency  of  allowing  men  their  choice,  and  their 
brides  none,  with  which  Shakespeare  was  in  sympathy,  or 
is  this  only  apparent  to  some  modern  minds? 

ACT  V 

THE   THREEFOLD   MASK 

If  the  central  action  of  the  play  be  considered  as  vir- 
tually concluded  with  the  fourth  Act,  what  office  is  per- 
formed by  the  fifth  Act  ? 

Notice  that  in  it  the  three  groups  of  characters  consti- 
tuting the  play — the  court  group  with  the  lovers;  the 
'rude  mechanicals'  and  their  'tedious  brief  scene,'  and 
the  fairy  train — are  in  this  Act  all  brought  upon  the 
stage,  the  whole  spectacle  being  set  in  the  palace  at 
Athens,  in  celebration  of  the  wedding  festivities  of  the 
ducal  pair,  which,  as  before  noticed,  is  used  as  a  sort  of 
decorative  frame  for  the  play  as  a  whole. 

Examine  the  working-out  of  this  unified  presentation  of 


72  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

all  the  personages.  How  are  we  to  account  for  the  sil- 
ence of  the  women  who  were  made  to  do  so  much  towards 
the  institution  of  the  action?  Show  the  poetic  reasons 
for  the  entrance  of  Puck  and  the  fairies  last  of  all,  and 
when  the  stage  is  empty. 

POINTS,  i.  Explanation  of  all  mythical  allusions.  2. 
Account  of  theories  as  to  meaning  of  'The  thrice  three 
muses,'  etc.,  V.  i.  59.  3.  What  is  a  'Bergomask  dance'? 
4.  The  date  and  occasion  of  the  play:  This  play  appears 
in  Meres's  list  of  1598  and  in  the  Quartos  of  1600.  Ti- 
tania's  description  of  the  unseasonable  weather  (II.  i.  92, 
foil.)  may  refer  to  the  year  1594.  Note  that  Chaucer  in 
the  'Knight's  Tale'  speaks  of  the  tempest  at  Hippolyta's 
home-coming.  Many  critics  have  believed  that  the  play 
was  written  on  the  occasion  of  some  marriage  in  high  life, 
but  they  do  not  agree  as  to  whose  it  was. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Upon  what  does  the  interest  of  the  last  Act  centre? 
How  does  the  ending  suit  the  various  threads  of  the  Play  ? 

Is  Theseus  or  Hippolyta  the  wiser  critic  of  'the  story 
of  the  night' ;  and  which  of  them  is  the  wiser  critic  of  the 
play  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe  ? 

SOURCES  OF  THE   PLAY 

I.    WHERE    SHAKESPEARE    FOUND    SUGGESTIONS    FOR    HIS 
MORTALS 

In  Plutarch's  'Life  of  Theseus'  will  be  found  passages 
which  furnished  Shakespeare  with  some  points  for  his 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       73 

drama.  Chaucer's  'Knight's  Tale'  is  also  said  to  have 
given  him  material.  The  editor  of  the  "First  Folio  Edi- 
tion" suggests  in  the  introduction  that  a  reading  by 
Shakespeare  of  a  poem  in  his  day  supposed  to  be  Chau- 
cer's, 'The  Flower  and  the  Leaf,'  gave  him  an  important 
hint  for  his  plot.  Examine  for  yourself,  and  state  what 
indebtedness  you  find  in  any  of  these  sources.  In  I.  i.  20, 
Theseus  says  to  Hippolyta,  'I  woo'd  thee  with  my  sword.' 
Compare  this  with  the  account  given  in  Chaucer.  Ac- 
cording to  another  version  of  the  story  Hercules  gave 
Hippolyta  to  his  kinsman  Theseus  in  marriage.  Com- 
pare 'The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen'  and  the  'Knight's  Tale' 
with  Shakespeare's  'Dreame.' 

2.   WHERE    SHAKESPEARE    FOUND    SUGGESTIONS    FOR    HIS 
FAIRIES 

The  models  in  literature  from  which  Shakespeare  drew 
may  have  been  'Huon  of  Bordeaux,'  where  he  got  little, 
however,  but  the  name  Oberon.  The  name  Titania  may 
have  been  derived  from  Ovid's  'Metamorphoses.'  The 
Fairy  Queen  in  Shakespeare's  day  usually  went  by  the 
name  of  Queen  Mab.  Puck's  characteristics  seem  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  little  tract  of  'Robin  Goodfellow, 
His  Mad  Pranks  and  Merry  Jests.'  Rolfe,  in  the  notes  to 
his  edition  of  the  play,  says  that  White  argues  that  this  was 
probably  written  after  "A  Midsommer  Nights  Dreame." 
Ward  thinks  that  the  entire  machinery  of  Oberon  and  his 
court  may  have  been  derived  from  Greene's  'Scottish  His- 
tory of  James  IV,'  and  that  Titania  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by  Chaucer's  'Wife  of  Bath's  Tale/  He  prob- 


74  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ably  owed  his  fairies  in  great  measure  to  tradition  or  folk- 
lore. The  folk-lore  of  England  was  originally  made  up 
of  Teutonic  elements,  which  have  been  modified  by  Dan- 
ish and  Norman  invasions,  by  remnants  of  old  Keltic 
belief,  and  by  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  which  last 
degraded  the  good  fairies  into  mischievous  elves.  (See 
Hazlitt,  'Fairy  Mythology  of  Shakespeare/  HalliweH's 
'Illustrations  of  the  Fairy  Mythology  of  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,'  also  Poet-Lore,  April,  1891,  'Fairy-lore 
in  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.') 

3.   SOLAR  ORIGIN  OF  THE  FAIRIES 

According  to  some  authorities  the  Teutonic  mythology 
was  of  cosmic  origin.  In  the  fairies  may  be  seen  many 
reflections  of  cosmic  characteristics.  Oberon  and  Titania 
are  fairies  of  the  night,  and  the  old  battle  between  light 
and  darkness  shows  itself  in  the  mad  pranks  which  they 
play  on  unsuspecting  mortals.  But  as  the  daylight  comes 
they  are  obliged  to  flee.  Puck  reflects  the  characteristics 
of  a  wind  god.  (See  Cox,  'Myths  of  the  Aryan  Nations;' 
also  Korner,  'Solar  Myths  in  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,' 
Poet-Lore ,  Jan.,  1891).  Compare  his  character  with  that 
of  Hermes  in  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Hermes  (Shelley's 
Translation). 

SYMPOSIUM   OF   OPINION   ON   THE   CHARACTERS 

I.     THE    LOVERS 
QUERIES    FOR    DISCUSSION 

I.  Hermia  and  Helena  are  hardly  worth  considering, 
but  if  anything  Helena  is  to  be  preferred  to  Hermia 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       75 

because  she  is  so  humble,  and  shows  no  sign  of  jealousy  of 
Hermia,  2.  If  Hermia  had  been  more  dignified  when  she 
found  that  both  the  lovers  had  turned  their  attention  to 
Helena,  she  would  better  have  carried  out  the  promise  of 
her  character  in  the  first  Act  when  she  declared  she  would 
rather  die  than  wed  the  man  chosen  by  her  father. 

2.     HIPPOLYTA    AND    THESEUS 
QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

I.  The  only  indication  we  have  of  the  character  of 
Hippolyta  is  in  the  last  act,  where  she  is  so  bored  by  the 
play  of  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe.'  Does  this  show  stupidity 
on  her  part  or  exceptional  development?  2.  Do  you 
agree  with  Dowden  that  there  is  no  figure  in  the  early 
drama  of  Shakespeare  so  magnificent  as  Theseus?  His 
insistence  in  Act  I.  that  Hermia  should  obey  her  father 
against  her  own  inclinations  is  certainly  not  very  praise- 
worthy, but  might  be  excused  on  the  score  of  the  times 
in  which  he  lived.  3.  His  complaisance  toward  Quince 
and  his  companions  has  been  considered  an  indication  that 
he  was  a  most  perfect  gentleman;  does  he  not  rather 
conceitedly  patronize  them? 

3.    THE   FAIRIES 
QUERIES   FOR  DISCUSSION 

I.  Have  the  Fairies  any  idea  of  morality?  2.  Oberon 
was  perfectly  justified  in  wishing  to  get  the  changeling 


76  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

from  his  wife,  and  shows  himself  worthy  of  becoming  a 
mortal  for  insisting  on  his  rights  as  a  husband.  3.  Titania 
is  the  most  developed  woman  character  in  the  play,  be- 
cause she  insists  on  her  individual  right  to  the  change- 
ling. 4.  Is  Puck  a  more  developed  fairy  than  Ariel  in 
'The  Tempest'? 

4.     THE  PLAYERS 
QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

I.  Is  Shakespeare  making  fun  of  the  stupidity  of  Quince 
and  his  companions,  or  is  he  gently  satirizing  the  stage 
and  the  exaggerated  style  of  writing  for  the  stage  which 
prevailed  at  this  time?  2.  If  the  last  is  true,  is  not  Shake- 
speare in  the  last  act  making  fun  of  the  audience,  as  well  as 
of  the  players,  who  with  a  superior  air  pass  judgment  upon 
the  play  and  indulge  in  very  lame  wit,  while  the  real 
meaning  of  it  quite  escapes  them. 

SYMPOSIUM  OF  OPINION  ON  FAVORITE  PASSAGES 

Every  member  of  the  class  or  club  should  bring  in  a 
short  paper  giving  his  favorite  passage  in  the  play  and  why 
he  likes  it,  including  his  criticism  of  the  metre,  of  the 
metaphors  and  similes,  and  the  thought  contained. 

QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

I.  Which  characters  in  the  play  are  original  with  Shake- 
speare? 2.  What  is  to  be  thought  of  Shakespeare  for 


A  MIDSOMMER  NIGHTS  DREAME       77 

bringing  together  in  one  play  Greek  mythology,  English 
folk-lore,  and  English  workmen  of  his  own  age?  Does 
this  commixture  of  elements  make  the  Play  seem  un- 
natural or  incongruous?  Has  he  skilfully  harmonised 
these  diverse  elements  by  giving  the  Play  its  dream-like 
character?  3.  That  this  play  is  charming  cannot  be  dis- 
puted. Is  its  chief  charm  its  humor,  its  fancy,  its  dra- 
matic construction,  or  subtle  developments  of  character? 


THE  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE 

Sufficiently  indirect  use  of  contemporary  political  events 
in  a  Play  was  a  cause  of  popularity  without  seeming  dan- 
gerous to  the  State. 

As  "Loves  Labour's  Lost"  is  an  early  example  of  a  plot 
woven  out  of  masked  allusions  to  current  topics,  so  even 
as  definitely  plotted  a  comedy  as  "The  Merchant  of 
Venice"  here  and  there  worked  in  an  animating  shred  of 
contemporary  reference. 

After  Dr.  Roderigo  Lopez,  the  Queen's  physician,  was 
accused  by  Don  Antonio  of  Portugal,  and  executed  June 
7,  1594,  on  the  charge  of  being  bribed  by  the  King  of 
Spain  to  poison  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  story  of  a  Shylock's 
defeat  and  the  rescue  from  his  clutches  of  an  Anthonio 
had  just  enough  relevance  to  be  popular  without  definite- 
ness  enough  to  be  obtrusive. 

ACT  I 

SHYLOCK'S   "MBRRIB   BOND" 

Why  is  Anthonio  sad?  Is  it  presentiment?  Is  it,  de 
spite  his  unselfish  willingness  to  furnish  forth  Bassanio 
to  sue  at  Belmont  for  Portia,  some  sense  of  loss  in  friend- 
ship through  this  love  ?  Anthonio  and  Bassanio  may  be  con- 
sidered as  examples  of  that  devoted  friendship  illustrated 
by  Valentine's  feelings  towards  Protheus  in  "The  Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona." 

78 


A  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE  79 

The  group  of  young  and  gay  courtiers  circling  about 
the  two  friends  bring  them  into  brighter  relief. 

Unlike  Protheus,  though  perhaps  younger  and  less 
wrapped  up  in  the  sense  of  friendship  than  Anthonio  is, 
Bassanio  is  worthy  of  such  regard.  Do  the  "faire  speech- 
,less  messages"  he  has  received  from  Portia's  eyes  and  his 
praise  of  her  as  "nothing  undervalued  to  Brutus's  Portia" 
tell  the  cause  of  his  quest  better  than  what  is  said  of  her 
wealth?  Notice  that  even  what  he  says  of  that  is  as  a 
mere  grace  of  her  person:  "her  sunny  locks  Hang  on  her 
temples,"  etc.  (I.  i.  177-181). 

What  reasons  had  Shylock  for  hating  Anthonio  ? 

Does  Anthonio's  demand  that  he  lend  the  money  to  him 
as  an  enemy  justify  the  terms  of  the  bond? 

Is  Bassanio  right  in  distrusting,  and  wrong  in  accepting 
such  a  bond? 

The  long  pedigree  of  Jewish  and  Christian  antipathy 
and  its  illustration  in  this  bond  by  the  characters  that  are 
its  exemplars. 

What  is  to  be  gathered  of  Portia  in  this  Act  before  she 
meets  again  with  Bassanio? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Are  Anthonio  and  Shylock  more  individual  than  typi- 
cal? 

Does  the  Act  close  with  assurance  of  good  luck  or  fore- 
boding of  bad? 

Is  Bassanio  a  fortune  hunter? 

Is  he  to  blame  for  what  follows? 


8o  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ACT  II 

PORTIA'S  CASKETS 

Why  is  Jessica's  story  intertwined  with  Portia's  ?  Wha 
dramatic  purposes  does  it  serve?  Are  Jessica  and  Launo 
alike  justified  in  leaving  Shylock?  Why?  (See  Intro 
duction  to  the  Play  in  First  Folio  Edition  for  suggestion) 
Is  the  Jew's  lament  for  his  daughter  although  piteous,  in 
adequate. 

Is  the  choice  of  the  gold  and  the  silver  by  the  Mooi 
and  Spaniard  significant  of  their  natures? 

What  reason  is  there  to  find  in  the  symbolism  and  th< 
persuasion  to  choice  each  suitor  employs  that  Portia'! 
father  has  used  the  wisdom  of  a  seer  in  prescribing  th< 
choice  from  the  three  caskets? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Do  you  like  Jessica?  Why?  In  what  ways  are  Portij 
and  Jessica  alike  in  the  generousness  of  love  though  oppo- 
site in  circumstances? 

Is  Jessica's  elopement  to  blame  for  her  father's  joy  in 
the  wreckage  of  Anthonio's  ships  and  his  final  exaction  oi 
the  bond?  Was  it  introduced  in  the  Plot  for  this  pur- 
pose? 

ACT  III 

BASSANIO'S    LUCK    AND    ANTHONIO'S    LOSS 

Shakespeare's  creed  of  love  as  engendered  in  the  eyes 
may  be  illustrated  by  passages  in  many  other  plays  as  well 
as  this.  What  is  meant  by  it? 


A  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE  gi 

Is  Bassanio's  daring  in  venturing  so  much  for  his  chance 
with  Portia  itself  a  sign  of  his  fitness,  or  the  reverse? 
How  is  his  casket  significant  of  this  test-stone^i  e  ad- 
venturousness  ? 

Is  the  match  of  Nerissa  and  Gratiano  an  irrelevance  to 
Portia's  and  Bassanio's  courtship  or  an  enhancement  of 
their  happiness?  Show  how  the  two  points  of  climax  in 
event  and  feeling  balance  absolutely  but  do  not  sacrifice 
each  other?  Are  Shakespeare's  experiments  in  bold  juxta- 
position of  extreme  fortune  and  happiness  and  utterly  ir- 
retrievable devastation  anywhere  so  poignant  as  the  arriv- 
al of  Anthonio's  letter  at  the  betrothal  of  Bassanio  and 
Portia? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  secret  of  Bassanio's  adventurousness  the  supreme 
honor  in  which  he  holds  love?  Nothing  else  being  of  so 
much  consequence,  he  yields  everything  to  love.  Does 
Jessica,  also? 

The  "manners"  of  Portia,  according  to  Gildon,  "are 
not  always  agreeable  or  convenient  to  her  Sex  and  Quali- 
ty; particularly  where  she  scarce  preserves  her  modesty 
in  the  expression."  What  is  to  be  thought  of  this? 

Is  Anthonio's  letter  characteristic  of  his  nobleness  as  a 
friend,  or  is  it  too  insistent  upon  bringing  Bassanio  to  him, 
since  to  send  such  a  letter  was  equivalent  to  fetching  him  ? 

Is  it  Portia's  best  warrant  as  a  noble  bride  and  wife 
that  she  appreciates  Anthonio's  message  and  friendship  ? 


82  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

ACT  IV 

t 

THE  LUCK  REDEEMS  THE   LOSS 

By  means  of  Bassanio's  luck  in  winning  Portia's  love 
and  hand  Shylock  is  finally  defeated  of  his  malicious  pur- 
pose. Portia  considered  as  the  embodiment  of  Bassanio's 
luck  and  the  instrument  bringing  Shylock  to  confusion. 

Does  it  matter  whether  the  law-point  is  disputable  or 
not  since  the  traditional  stories  on  which  the  Play  is  built 
up  afford  the  opportunity  for  its  use? 

Does  Shylock  get  Justice,  since  he  had  refused  mercy? 

Illustrate  the  legal  knowledge  and  studies  of  Italian 
women  of  the  Renaissance  affording  a  parallel  for  Por- 
tia's sagacity  and  leadership.  (For  hints  see  pp.  256-260 
in  "First  Folio  Edition.") 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Do  you  think  Shylock  is  wronged? 

Does  Shylock  so  preponderate  the  Play  as  to  destroy  its 
balance,  and  outweighing  all  other  characters  make  them 
insignificant? 

Are  Actors  justified  in  acting  the  Play  so  as  to  dwarf 
the  Love  plot  and  cut  out  Act  V  as  needless? 

Is  Portia  the  proper  counterpart  in  consummate  char- 
acter creation  to  Shylock?  To  whom  does,  if  properly 
played,  the  ultimate  interest  of  the  Play  belong? 

Why  does  this  position  belong  to  no  other  character's 
part? 


A  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE  83 

ACT  V 

THE  RINGS 

What  is  the  business  of  Act  V? 

How  is  it  linked  to  the  preceding  Act?  Since  reunion 
and  rejoicing  are  not  alone  the  business  of  the  plot;  since 
recognition  and  declaration  to  the  two  husbands,  and  to 
Anthonio,  especially,  are  needed,  as  well  as  to  the  others, 
of  the  part  played  by  the  wives  in  solving  the  difficulties 
of  the  plot,  the  Ring  scenes  constitute  the  due  dramatic 
conclusion  of  the  Play.  Note  that  the  threat  of  quarrel 
over  the  reluctant  but  requisite  giving  away  of  the  rings 
in  the  preceding  Act  makes  a  deceptively  serious  difficulty. 
It  is  happily  to  be  solved  as  a  result  of  the  wives'  preced- 
ing action.  This  difficulty  and  this  solution  at  this  final 
stage  of  the  plot  constitute  a  little  character  play  that  is 
an  epitome  of  the  action.  The  whole  is  the  more  happily 
and  amusingly  solved  that  the  Audience  is  wise  and  the 
characters  still  in  the  dark  are  really  perplexed. 

Point  out  the  value  of  the  exchange  of  Rings  as  made 
clear  in  these  two  ways,  by  bringing  out  the  characters  of 
Gratiano,  Bassanio,  and  especially  of  Anthonio  as  peace- 
maker; and  by  bringing  out  to  them  the  fact  that  to  the 
wives'  love  and  skill  the  victory  over  the  difficulties  they 
suffered  is  due. 

Are  the  rings  the  sole  test  of  this? 

What  other  news  adds  to  the  general  denouement  of 
all  difficulties? 

Is  the  summing  up  of  the  Play  a  victory  of  love  and  in- 


84  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

telligcnce  over  hate  and  narrow-mindedness? 

Show  how  the  rings  symbolize  this,  and  music  and 
moonlight  provide  the  proper  atmosphere  for  its  operation. 
The  appropriateness  of  the  moonlight  for  a  calm  out  of 
strife,  brought  about  by  women,  is  matched  by  the  fitness 
of  music  and  the  reference  to  the  harmony  of  the  spheres 
to  suggest  that  earth-harmony  to  which  Portia  was  pre- 
siding Angel. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  any  incident  of  Act  V  without  relevance  to  the  plot  ? 

Is  the  Play  the  nobler  or  the  weaker  dramatically  for 

the  poetic  and  symbolic  influence  shed  upon  it  by  Act  V? 


THE  MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR 

If  this  Comedy  was  written,  as  tradition  reports  at  the 
bidding  of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  order  to  show  Falstaffe  in 
love,  it  is  interesting  to  see  that  Shakespeare  confines  his 
love-making  to  mercenary  motives,  and  by  causing  him  to 
make  love  to  two  at  once  renders  him  as  a  lover  merely  a 
cheat. 

So  keeping  the  word  of  promise  to  the  ear,  he  obeys  by 
breaking  it  to  the  sense.  To  show  Falstaffe  as  a  lover 
amounts  to  showing  him  as  no  lover  at  all. 

In  this  sense,  the  Play  might  be  called  a  courteous  sa- 
tire upon  the  Queen's  request. 

THE  STORY  OF  ACT  I 


How  Falstaffe  falls  into  trouble,  turns  away  his  fol- 
lowers and  begins  a  new  enterprise:  How  do  his  follow- 
ers take  revenge?  What  light  upon  this  opening  of  the 
story  do  scenes  i.  and  iii.  show? 

What  is  the  underplot  as  shown  in  scenes  ii.  and  iv  and 
a  part  of  scene  i? 

Do  they  appear  to  have  anything  to  do  with  each  other? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Which  of  her  suitors  does  Anne  prefer?  Which  is  to 
be  preferred  ? 

8S 


86  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Is  the  grievance  of  Shallow  against  Falstaffe  a  necessity 
of  the  plot  to  show  the  fat  knight  in  love,  or  an  episode  in- 
troduced out  of  Shakespeare's  grudge  towards  Sir  Thom- 
as Lucy?  (See  pp.  117-119,  138-141,  etc.,  "First  Folio 
Edition.") 

THE  STORY  OF  ACT  II 

THB   MERRY  WIVES  AND   FORD   LAY   PLOTS 

In  Act  II  a  third  under-intrigue  that  of  Ford  with 
Falstaffe  is  added  to  the  two  before  introduced. 

Show  how  the  Merry  Wives  reveal  their  separate  per- 
sonalities in  their  reception  of  the  duplicate  letters,  and 
their  plot  to  dupe  Falstaffe. 

Contrast  their  two  husbands  as  their  natures  and  mari- 
tal relations  are  shown  by  their  different  manner  of  taking 
the  information  given  them  by  Nym  and  Pistol.  Ford, 
considered  as  Shakespeare's  first  study  of  jealousy.  How 
does  he  compare  with  Leontes? 

How  does  Ford  assist  in  the  plot  of  the  Play? 

What  pertinence  to  Ford's  jealousy  is  there  in  the  allu- 
sion to  Queen  Elizabeth's  Sonnet?  (II,  ii,  199-200). 

The  Sources  of  the  Merry  Wives'  intrigue  and  what 
Shakespeare  has  done  with  them.  (See  "Sources,"  First 
Folio  Edition).  How  is  the  Duel  scene  related  to  the 
underplot? 

What  characters  belong  in  common  to  plot  and  coun- 
terplot ? 


THE  MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR      87 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  Falstaffe  show  any  material  differences  in  charac- 
ter as  he  appears  in  this  Play,  in  comparison  with  the 
way  he  appears  in  "Henry  IV?" 

THE  STORY  OF  ACT  III 

THE  DOUBLE  DUPERY 

Contrast  the  feelings  of  Falstaffe  before  and  after  the 
Buckbasket  episode? 

In  which  scene  is  Ford  the  worst  duped  ? 

Give  an  account  of  Dame  Quickly 's  relations  to  the 
intrigues,  and  show  how  her  multitudinous  offices  as  go- 
between  interfere  with  each  other  so  that  she  is  "slacke" 
in  one  of  her  errands.  What  is  the  effect  of  her  slackness 
on  the  contradictions  in  the  time  of  the  action.  (See  Dur- 
ation of  the  Action,  in  "First  Folio  Edition" X-  Are  they 
only  seeming  contradictions?  The  Sources  of  the  Ford 
intrigue  and  what  Shakespeare  has  done  with  them. 

Anne  and  her  father  and  mother  as  characterized  in 
this  act,  with  relation  to  the  suitors. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Anne  the  only  character  one  can  thoroughly  sympa- 
thize with? 

Are  the  situations  such  as  owe  their  fun  largely  to  coin- 
cidence, like  those  in  the  "Comedie  of  Errors,"  or  to  a 


88  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

teeming  variousness  in  the  human  naturalness  of  all  the 
characters? 

THE  STORY  OF  ACT  IV 

FORD'S  ENLIGHTENMENT 

Why  is  the  Old  Woman  of  Brentford  trick  a  climax 
upon  that  of  the  Buckbasket? 

Falstaffe's  wish  that  all  the  world  might  be  cheated  is 
true  to  the  method  of  the  Play.  Show  in  exemplification 
of  this,  how  a  fourth  intrigue  grows  out  of  the  third,  and 
is  introduced  as  late  as  this  fourth  Act.  How  is  the  joke 
of  the  Host  against  Dr.  Caius  and  Sir  Hugh  Evans 
avenged  ?  Is  this  reference  to  the  "three  Cozen  Jermans" 
that  are  said  to  run  away  with  the  Host's  horses,  liklier  to 
be  an  allusion  seriously  made  to  a  real  event  or  to  make 
use  of  it  as  an  entirely  fictitious  intrigue  and  practical  joke 
in  the  Play?  Is  this  mock  happening  such  as  could  be 
clear  by  the  method  of  enacting  it  and  one  entirely  conso- 
nant with  this  Comedy  as  a  farce-mosaic  of  laughable 
tricks?  (See  pp.  120121,  179-180,  also  Note  on  IV.  iii.  6). 
Discuss  probabilities.  The  turn  taken  in  the  plot:  Show 
how  all  combine  against  Falstaflfe;  also  the  place  of  this 
intrigue  in  making  material  for  Act  V. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Has  the  "Merry  Wives"  any  serious  or  tragic  moments 
such  as  belong  usually  to  Shakespeare's  Comedies  ? 


THE  MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR      89 

Compare  the  jealousy  of  Ford  with  the  jealousy  of 
Adriana  in  the  "Comcdie  of  Errors."  Which  exemplifies 
the  riper  treatment  and  why  ? 

THE  STORY  OF  ACT  V 

THE  DEFEAT  OF  MERCENARY  LOVEMAKING 

Make  clear  the  ins  and  outs  of  the  Fairy  trap,  first  for 
its  actors,  then  for  the  dupes?  Can  the  apparent  incon- 
sistencies in  the  wearing  of  green  or  white  and  the  men- 
tion of  "Quickly"  for  "Queene"  be  accounted  for  on  the 
supposition  that  everybody  is  deceived  except  Nan  and 
Fen  ton?  (See  Notes  on  V.  v.  421,  205-209). 

The  compliments  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  Play: 
What  are  they  and  how  is  their  appropriateness  to  the 
Plot  made  good? 

Consider  the  "humors"  of  the  Welsh  and  French 
speeches  and  episodes  as  exploitations  and  developments 
of  the  similar  humors  of  Fluellen  and  the  Frenchmen  of 
"Henry  V." 

The  fairy  scenes  and  effects  of  this  Play  compared  with 
those  of  the  wedding  night  feast  at  the  end  of  "A  Mid- 
sommer  Nights  Dreame." 

What  indications  are  there  in  the  Falstaffe  of  "Henry 
IV."  that  he  is  superficially  affected  by  the  Puritanism 
about  him?  Is  he  any  more  deeply  affected  by  it  in  the 
present  Play?  What  is  the  difference  in  his  appearance  in 
this  Play  with  respect  to  Puritanic  morals:  Is  he  more 
affected  by  them,  at  the  last,  when  he  is  so  grossly  their 


90  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

victim,  or  have  they  grown,  and  put  him  out  of  date  in 
England  except  as  an  atavism? 

Have  Page  and  his  Wife  any  loftier  standpoint  as  to 
mercenary  love  than  Falstaffe  himself?  Is  Fenton's 
speech  (V.  v.  225-235)  the  moral  of  the  last  Act  or 
is  Ford's  (237-238)  ? 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  main  design  of  the  Play  to  "cure  Ford  of  his  un- 
reasonable jealousy,"  as  Rowe  says,  or  to  dupe  and  re- 
form Falstaffe?  Is  the  total  aim  sport  to  laugh  over  "by 
a  Countrie  fire?"  Is  it  a  Comedy  of  irony  turned  against 
all  mercenary  motives  in  love? 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT 
I 

THE  DRAMATIC  CONDUCT  OF  THE  PLAY:     THE  WRESTLING 
MATCH 

How  much  of  the  situation  existing  in  the  play  comes 
out  in  Act  I.  i.?  And  what  action  takes  place? 

The  strained  relation  existing  between  the  brothers 
Orlando  and  Oliver  is  revealed  through  Orlando's  con- 
versation with  Adam  and  with  his  brother  Oliver.  The 
situation  at  court  is  also  revealed  through  the  conversation 
of  Oliver  with  the  wrestler  Charles,  and  also  the  loving 
relation  existing  between  Celia  and  Rosalind;  thus  we 
are  at  once  put  into  the  possession  of  three  emotional  or 
passional  causes  for  action — Oliver's  hatred  of  his  younger 
brother,  the  younger  Duke's  hatred  of  his  older  brother, 
and  the  love  of  Celia  for  Rosalind.  Of  these  causes  for 
action  only  one  bears  any  fruit  in  this  scene,  namely,  Oliver 
arranges  with  the  wrestler  to  kill  Orlando.  What  are 
the  connections  existing  between  sc.  ii.  and  sc.  i.?  First 
there  is  a  picture  of  the  loving  relationship  existing  be- 
tween Rosalind  and  Celia  (already  mentioned  by  Oliver 
in  sc.  i.)  which  reveals  very  subtly  differences  in  their 
natures.  The  action  set  going  by  Oliver  in  sc.  i.  is  con- 
summated in  the  wrestling  match,  but  with  a  result  differ- 
ent from  that  hoped  for  by  Oliver,  thus  leaving  Oliver's 
hatred  still  present  as  a  cause  of  action.  Out  of  the 
wrestling  match  what  further  passional  and  emotional 

91 


92  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

causes  of  action  are  set  up?  Duke  Frederick's  hatred  for 
Orlando  is  aroused  because  he  learns  he  is  the  son  of  a  man 
he  had  considered  his  enemy,  and  action  against  him  is 
the  immediate  result.  Orlando  is  warned  by  Le  Beau 
that  he  is  not  safe  at  the  court.  The  Duke's  hatred  of 
his  brother  bears  further  fruit  in  its  extension  to  Rosalind. 
The  meeting  of  Rosalind  and  Orlando  brought  about  by 
the  wrestling  match  gives  rise  to  a  fresh  emotional  force  in 
their  budding  love  for  each  other.  In  Sc.  iii.,  the  state  of 
Rosalind's  heart  as  to  Orlando,  hinted  at  in  sc.  ii.,  is 
fully  revealed;  the  Duke's  hatred  takes  shape  in  his  sen- 
tence of  banishment  or  death,  giving  rise  to  a  new  direc- 
tion for  action,  and  the  emotion  of  Celia's  love  for  Rosa- 
lind bears  fruit  in  her  determination  to  go  with  Rosalind 
into  banishment. 

II 

LIPB  IN  THE  FOREST  OF  ARDEN 

In  Act  II.  how  are  the  elements  of  action,  character 
delineation  and  emotion  intermingled? 

Sc.  i.  gives  us  a  picture  of  the  banished  Duke  and  his 
followers  in  the  Forest  of  Arden,  already  prepared  for  in 
Act  L,  introduces  us  to  the  personality  of  the  Duke,  and 
in  the  conversation  with  the  lords  prepares  us  for  coming 
delights  in  the  personality  of  Jaques.  It  does  not  advance 
the  action,  at  all.  In  sc  ii.,  the  result  of  Celia's  act  in 
going  with  Rosalind  is  shown  in  the  bad  Duke's  conster- 
nation, who  determines  that  they  shall  be  found,  thus  start- 
ing another  thread  of  action  to  be  developed  later.  Sc. 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT  93 

iii.  the  passional  cause  of  action  in  Oliver's  hatred  of 
Orlando  reaches  a  crisis;  Orlando  is  obliged  to  flee  to 
save  himself  from  death.  Sc.  iv.  shows  Celia  and  Rosa- 
lind arrived  at  their  journey's  end  in  the  Forest  of  Ar- 
den,  and  making  arrangements  with  a  shepherd  for  a 
comfortable  little  house  to  rusticate  in ;  thus  is  closed  the 
thread  of  action  started  by  the  Duke  in  banishing  Rosa- 
lind. In  the  conversation  of  their  new  companions,  Corin 
and  Silvius,  we  learn  of  the  love  of  Silvius  for  the  scorn- 
ful Phebe,  which  is  another  emotional  impulse  to  action, 
later  blending  itself  with  the  plot.  In  sc.  v.  we  meet 
Jaques,  already  mentioned,  and  get  another  glimpse  of 
the  pleasant  company  in  the  forest,  but  they  are  still  quite 
detached  from  the  active  elements  of  the  play.  Sc.  vi. 
shows  us  how  far  Orlando  and  Adam  have  gone  in  their 
flight,  and  sc.  vii.  presents  again  the  good  Duke's  court, 
develops  further  the  personality  of  Jaques,  and  prepares 
us,  through  his  conversation  about  the  fool  whom  he  had 
met  in  the  forest,  for  the  contact  of  one  of  the  threads  of 
action  with  the  element  of  inaction  represented  by  this 
good  Duke's  forest  court,  while  in  the  sudden  breaking 
in  upon  them  of  Orlando  it  is  brought  into  contact  with 
another  of  the  threads  of  action. 

Ill 

LOVE   IN   THE   FOREST  OF   ARDEN 

At  the  opening  of  Act  III.  what  results  have  been 
brought  about  by  the  action  so  far?  Everybody  in  the 
play  except  Oliver  and  the  bad  Duke  has  arrived  in  the 


94  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Forest  of  Arden.  In  sc  i.  of  Act  III.  the  hatred  of  the 
Duke  is  still  active  as  a  force,  and  Oliver  through  this 
means  is  also  sent  off  to  finally  bring  up  in  the  Forest 
of  Arden.  The  Duke's  attitude  as  a  motive  force  having 
worked  itself  out  in  its  relation  to  Orlando  and  Rosa- 
lind, the  emotional  cause  of  action  in  the  love  of  Rosalind 
and  Orlando  is  free  to  develop,  and  the  remainder  of  Act 
III.  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the  presentation  of  the  situation 
between  the  lovers,  which,  owing  to  the  disguise  assumed 
by  Rosalind,  gives  rise  to  the  charming  inconsistencies 
attending  the  wooing  of  a  proxy  Rosalind  who  is  in  reality 
Rosalind  herself.  Around  these  central  lovers,  whose 
characters  Shakespeare  unfolds,  revolve  other  interesting 
personalities.  Touchstone  meets  his  fate  in  Audrey.  Phebe 
still  scorns  Conn  and  perversely  falls  in  love  with  Gany- 
mede. The  action  is  only  advanced  to  the  extent  that 
Rosalind  learns  the  state  of  Orlando's  mind  while  he  still 
remains  in  ignorance  as  to  hers. 

IV 

HATRED  BECOMES  LOVE  IN  ARDEN 

Are  there  any  fresh  elements  or  developments  in  Act 
IV.? 

Sc  i.  merely  continues  the  love-making  of  Act  III. 
Sc.  ii.  gives  another  glimpse  of  the  good  Duke's  court ;  in 
sc  iii.  the  love  of  Phebe  bears  fruit  in  a  letter  to  Gany- 
mede, and  Oliver  finds  his  way  to  the  forest.  The  bad 
Duke's  intentions  toward  Orlando  in  sending  Oliver  after 
him  are,  however,  frustrated  by  the  sudden  change  of  heart 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT  95 

of  Oliver  wrought  through  his  brother's  saving  his  life, 
and,  hatred  being  thus  killed  in  him,  a  fresh  emotional 
impulse  to  action  is  born  in  him  and  he  falls  in  love  with 
Aliena,  though  this  fact  does  not  come  out  until  the  next 
act. 

V 

LOVE  WINS  IN  ARDEN 

How  are  all  the  threads  unravelled  in  Act  V.?  In 
sc.  i.  Touchstone  pursues  his  own  love-affair  to  its  con- 
summation entirely  aside  from  any  connection  with  the 
plot.  In  sc.  ii.  the  love  of  Oliver  and  Aliena  results  in  an 
arrangement  for  the  wedding  the  next  day,  and  Rosalind 
seizes  that  occasion  as  a  fit  time  and  place  to  throw  off  her 
disguise,  give  herself  to  Orlando,  and  satisfy  Phebe  that 
she  can't  have  Ganymede.  And  finally  the  bad  Duke's 
hatred  makes  one  last  effort;  he  comes  with  an  army  to 
the  Forest  of  Arden  to  put  his  brother  to  the  sword,  but 
meets  an  old  religious  man  and  experiences  a  change  of 
heart,  and,  instead,  restores  to  his  brother  his  kingdom. 
Thus  love  conquers  on  every  hand. 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  is  the  chief  element  of  interest  in  the  play, — 
action,  situation,  or  character  portrayal. 

VI 

CHARACTER  STUDIES 

i.  The  relation  of  the  character-grouping  to  the  plot. 
Note  the  symmetrical  division  of  the  characters;  over 


96  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

against  a  bad  Duke  is  a  good  Duke.  Contrast  their  actions 
throughout  the  play.  Contrast  also  the  two  brothers,  Or- 
lando and  Oliver.  What  are  the  resemblances  between 
the  characters  of  Oliver  and  Duke  Frederick? — between 
Orlando  and  the  banished  Duke?  Is  Orlando's  rebellion 
against  his  brother's  injustice  or  the  banished  Duke's  ac- 
ceptance of  his  brother's  injustice  the  more  to  be  praised  ? 
Compare  his  attitude  with  that  of  Prospero  under  similar 
circumstances.  Whose  repentance  is  the  more  sincere, 
Oliver's  or  Duke  Frederick's?  Note  that  Oliver  has  lost 
all  when  he  repents,  while  the  Duke  gives  up  everything 
just  as  he  is  about  to  realize  his  aim.  Is  the  repentance 
of  the  usurping  Duke  merely  a  ruse  of  Shakespeare's  to 
bring  the  play  to  a  happy  ending?  In  Lodge's  story  he 
does  not  repent,  but  is  proceeded  against  by  his  brother. 
Contrast  Jaques  and  Touchstone.  Is  Jaques's  melancholy 
affected?  What  is  the  main  difference  between  Rosalind 
and  Celia?  Which  is  the  more  the  friend  of  the  other? 
(For  valuable  suggestions  on  these  points  see  'Characters 
in  "As  You  Like  It,'"  Poet-lore,  Vol.  IV.  pp.  31  and 
81,  Jan.  and  Feb.,  1892.) 

QUERIES    FOR    DISCUSSION 

Which  is  the  better  philosopher,  Jaques  or  Touchstone, 
and  which  is  more  closely  related  to  the  philosophy  of  the 
play? 

The  characters  of  the  two  Dukes  are  not  developed; 
they  are  merely  walking  gentlemen,  whose  office  it  is  to 
keep  the  play  in  motion. 

2.  The  Lovers  of  the  Play. 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT  97 

The  Different  Kinds  of  Love  in  'As  You  Like  It.'  Ex- 
amples of  love  at  first  sight  in  Shakespeare.  Note  Orlan- 
do's surprise  at  the  suddenness  of  Oliver's  and  Celia's  love. 
Was  his  own  less  sudden?  Consider  Hymen's  song  and 
Jaques's  remarks  in  the  last  scene  as  descriptive  of  the 
various  couples.  Does  the  comic  element  of  the  play,  as 
represented  by  Touchstone,  discredit  sentiment  in  the 
play?  Notice  the  madrigal  in  Lodge's  novel  (given  in 
Poet-lore,  Vol.  III.,  in  the  article  on  Lodge,  Dec.,  1891), 
and  consider  whether  Shakespeare  has  borrowed  anything 
from  it  in  characterizing  Rosalind's  wooing?  Contrast 
Lodge's  Montanus  as  a  lover  with  Shakespeare's  Silvius. 
Is  Montanus  too  much  of  a  "tame  snake"  to  be  natural? 
Or  does  this  constancy  in  love  make  him  a  superior  figure? 
Is  it  a  sign  of  Silvius's  inferiority  that  love  has  its  own 
way  with  him?  Can  love  be  true  that  changes  if  it  is 
unrequited  ? 

Are  those  actors  right,  do  you  think,  who  play  Oliver 
as  guessing  who  Ganymede  is  when  she  swoons  ?  Is  Ros- 
alind's conduct  unwomanly?  Is  her  disguise  unlikely? 

QUERIES   FOR   DISCUSSION 

It  is  best  for  the  man  to  love  the  most;  and  therefore 
has  Silvius  and  Phebe's  unequal  love-match  a  better  chance 
for  happiness  than  Rosalind's  and  Orlando's? 

VII 

THE  PASTORAL  ELOPMENT 

The  Rise  of  Pastoral  Poetry,  and  Shakespeare's  Use  of 
it  in  'As  You  Like  It* 


98  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

Compare  Spenser's  'Shepherd's  Calendar,'  Fletcher's 
'Faithful  Shepherdess,'  etc.  Point  out  any  differences  you 
find  between  Shakespeare's  and  Spenser's  pastoral  poetry. 
Modern  literary  use  of  the  pastoral  element,  Words- 
worth's 'Michael.'  Is  the  pastoral  life  of  literature  al- 
ways artificial  ?  Can  a  progress  toward  realism  be  shown  ? 
The  humor  of  the  play.  Discuss  in  particular  the  humor- 
ous comments  on  contrasts  between  court  and  country 
life.  Compare  modern  instances  of  the  refinements  and 
artifices  of  city  life  and  the  crudeness  of  work  and  pleas- 
ure in  the  country. 

Special  Points. — I.  The  Forest  of  Arden:  Is  it  in  Eng- 
land, France,  or  Shakespeare's  imagination?  2.  "Old 
Robin  Hood  of  England."  What  are  the  legends  con- 
cerning him?  3.  The  archaic  words  in  the  play.  (See 
Prof.  Sinclair  Korner's' Shakespeare's  Inheritance  from  the 
Fourteenth  Century,'  in  Poet-lore,  Vol.  II.,  p.  410,  Aug., 
1890.) 

QUERY    FOR   DISCUSSION 

Is  the  opposition  shown  in  the  play  between  life  at 
court  and  in  the  country  truly  shown  to  be  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  country. 

VIII 

THE  MORAL  ELEMENT 

The  moral  side  of  the  Play  consists,  according  to  the 
Introduction  in  the  First  Folio  Edition,  in  its  persuasion 
toward  an  Arden  of  the  disposition,  or  a  spirit  of  happy 
good  will  toward  all  men.  How  far  does  this  cover  the 
lesson  of  the  Play? 


AS  YOU  LIKE  IT  99 

What  is  to  be  thought  of  the  idea  in  the  'Ethics  of  "As 
You  Like  It"  '  (Poet-lore,  Vol.  III.,  p.  498,  Oct.,  1891), 
that  Touchstone's  opinion  of  a  shepherd's  life  (III.  ii.) 
is  the  key-note  of  the  play  ?  Are  the  references  to  fortune 
in  the  play  significant?  Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall  says:  "What 
we  most  prize  is  misfortune  borne  with  cheery  mind,  the 
sun  of  man's  spirit  shining  through  and  dispersing  the 
clouds  which  try  to  shade  it.  This  is  the  spirit  of  the 
play."  Of  this  Dr.  Ingleby  says:  "The  moral  of  the  play 
is  much  more  concrete  than  this.  It  is  not  how  to  bear 
misfortune  with  a  cheery  mind,  but  how  to  read  the  les- 
sons in  the  vicissitudes  of  physical  nature."  C.  A.  Wurtz- 
burg  says:  "The  deep  truths  that  may  be  gathered  from 
the  play  are  the  innate  dignity  of  the  human  spirit,  before 
which  every  conventionality  of  birth,  rank,  education, 
even  of  natural  ties,  must  give  way."  Give  arguments 
drawn  from  the  play  in  favor  of  or  against  all  of  these  sug- 
gestions. Is  it  an  evidence  of  Shakespeare's  intention  to 
be  a  moral  teacher  that  he  altered  the  fate  of  Duke 
Frederick? 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Has  the  play  any  moral  that  is  not  gently  satirized  in 
it? 

IX 

THE  SOURCE  OF  THE  PLOT 

Shakespeare's  Variations  from  Lodge. 

Compare  Lodge's  'Rosalind'  with  'As  You  Like  It/ 


ioo  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

(For  this  story,  see  "Shakespeare's  Library"  or  Extracts 
in  Notes  and  Comment  in  Sources  in  "First  Folio  Edi- 
tion"). 

Is  the  story  better  without  the  parts  Shakespeare  leaves 
out  (e.  g.,  Adam's  proposal  to  Rosader  to  cut  his  veins  and 
suck  the  blood ;  his  nose-bleed ;  the  incident  of  the  robbers 
accounting  for  Aliena's  sudden  love,  etc. )  ?  Why  is  the 
"Green  and  gilded  snake"  added?  Isn't  the  "lioness" 
enough?  Is  Rosader  or  Orlando  the  finer  character,  and 
why?  The  new  characters  introduced — Audrey  and  Wil- 
liam— considered  as  embodying  real  instead  of  ideal  pas- 
toral life.  Do  Shakespeare's  changes  affect  the  plot,  the 
characters,  or  the  moral  of  the  story?  (For  an  examina- 
tion of  the  plot  of  the  play,  see  'An  Inductive  Study  of 
"As  You  Like  It," '  in  Poet-lore,  Vol.  III.,  p.  341.) 

A  Sketch  of  Lodge's  Life  and  Work.  (See  'An  Eliza- 
bethan Lyrist:  Thomas  Lodge,'  in  Poet-lore,  Vol.  III.,  p. 
593,  Dec.,  1891.) 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Shakespeare's  framing  of  the  plot  of  'As  You  Like  It' 
not  to  be  admired,  because  it  is  borrowed  ? 

X 

THE    MUSIC    OF    THB    PLAY 

This  may  consist  of  a  brief  paper  on  the  subject  illus- 
trated by  a  program  of  the  songs  with  the  old  and  more 
modern  settings.  (See  New  Shakespeare  Society's  Papers, 
on  this  subject;  'Shakespeare  and  Music,'  by  E.  W.  Nay- 
lor.) 


TWELFE  NIGHT 

The  winsomeness  of  this  poetic  comedy  rightly  makes 
the  reader  or  the  hearer  hesitate  to  count  its  petals  or  scrut- 
inize the  stages  of  its  growth,  which  are  marked  by  its 
acts  as  symmetrically  as  leaf  buds  are  ranged  about  a 
stalk.  And  yet,  one  may  find  that  to  take  note  of  such 
beautiful  orderliness  in  the  delicate  structure  and  spright- 
ly blossoming  of  the  poet's  design  enhances  the  apprecia- 
tion of  its  artistic  quality.  Regarding  it  first  as  a  whole, 
sum  up  the  stages  of  the  action,  first;  then  the  caprices 
;ts  allusions  denote;  then  the  characters;  and  finally  the 
poetic  fancy  and  wit  exhaled  by  the  whole  play  like  a 
fragrance. 


THE  STORY  OF   THE   PLAY 

r\ 

Act  I.  scene  i.  puts  us  in  possession  of  what  facts  con- 
cerning the  Duke  and  Olivia?  What  do  we  learn  from 
the  conversation  of  Viola  and  the  Captain  in  scene  ii.,  and 
what  course  does  Viola  decide  upon?  What  do  we  dis- 
cover from  scene  iii.  in  regard  to  the  state  of  things  in 
Olivia's  household?  In  scene  iv.,  what  relation  has  been 
established  between  the  Duke  and  Viola?  What  three 
new  characters  are  introduced  in  scene  v.,  and  what  is 
the  event  of  the  scene?  Act  II.  scene  i.:  What  is  learned 

101 


102  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

of  Sebastian  and  his  intentions?  In  scene  ii.,  what  are 
shown  to  be  the  feelings  of  Olivia?  In  what  previous 
scene  was  this  prepared  for?  Does  scene  iii.  advance  the 
story  at  all?  What  is  it  taken  up  with?  Does  scene  iv. 
advance  the  story  ?  Of  what  scene  is  it  almost  a  repetition  ? 
If  it  does  not  advance  the  action,  what  does  it  do?  Of 
what  previous  scene  is  scene  v.  the  result?  What  pre- 
vious scene  leads  up  to  scene  i.  of  Act  III?  and  of  what 
scene  is  it  in  purpose  a  repetition?  What  new  turn  is 
given  to  affairs  in  scene  ii.,  and  through  whom  is  it 
brought  about?  Whose  doings  do  we  get  a  glimpse  of 
in  scene  iii?  Of  whose  plot  do  we  see  further  develop- 
ments in  scene  iv?  What  other  issues  in  the  progress  of 
events  come  to  a  climax  in  this  Act?  Act  IV.  scene  i.: 
Describe  the  complication  of  affairs  which  arises  in  this 
scene.  What  previous  scenes  do  we  see  the  result  of  in 
scene  ii  ?  and  what  happens  that  will  bring  about  a  change 
in  the  situation?  What  important  event  occurs  in  this 
scene  iii  ?  Act  V.  scene  i. :  Describe  how  in  this  scene  all 
the  complications  are  unravelled,  and  by  what  means  all 
the  characters  are  brought  upon  the  stage.  What  do  you 
think  of  the  device  to  call  Malvolio  upon  the  stage?  Does 
it  not  seem  rather  clumsy,  or  do  you  think  it  a  further 
humorous  touch  that  Viola  should  have  to  depend  on  Mal- 
volio to  find  her  'woman's  weeds  again'? 

What  becomes  evident  after  tracing  the  events  of  the 
play  through  in  this  way?  That  the  interest  of  the  play 
does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  story  itself,  as,  first,  up- 
on the  amusing  situations  resultant  from  the  story,  and, 
second,  upon  the  scenes  which  introduce  the  characters  in 


TWELFE  NIGHT  103 

Olivia's  household  who  are  really  not  at  all  concerned  in 
the  development  of  the  plot,  but  who  are  the  occasion  of 
many  added  amusing  situations. 

What  constitutes  the  real  interest  of  the  two  short 
scenes  between  Sebastian  and  Antonio?  Their  bearing, 
mainly,  on  scene  iv.  of  Act  III.  By  means  of  them  we 
are  shown  that  Antonio  has  an  enemy  in  Orsino,  and  thus 
his  arrest  is  prepared  for,  also  how  Antonio  gives  his  purse 
to  Sebastian,  the  real  purpose  of  the  arrest  being  to  bring 
about  a  reason  for  Antonio's  requiring  his  purse  again 
from  Cesario,  whom  he  takes  for  Sebastian,  and  so  to 
add  complication  to  the  situation  arising  from  the  resem- 
blance between  the  brother  and  sister. 

What  are  the  situations  which  the  story  gives  Shake- 
speare a  chance  to  develop  ?  On  the  one  hand,  is  the  Duke 
pouring  out  his  love  for  another  woman  to  his  supposed 
page,  who  is  in  love  with  him,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
series  of  scenes  between  the  Duke  and  Viola.  On  the  oth- 
er hand,  is  the  supposed  page  pressing  his  master's  suit  to 
a  woman  who  loves  the  supposed  page,  and  thus  giving 
rise  to  the  series  of  scenes  between  Viola  and  Olivia.  Out 
of  this  love  of  Olivia  for  Viola  grows  the  absurd  situation 
of  Viola's  being  obliged  to  fight  a  duel,  which  is  made 
still  more  ridiculous  through  the  circumstance  of  her 
challenger  being  a  fool.  Out  of  Viola's  resemblance  to 
her  brother  and  her  disguise  grows  the  absurd  situation 
of  Olivia's  claiming  her  as  a  husband,  and  that  of  Sir 
Andrew  taking  for  his  unwilling  duellist  the  all-too-will- 
ing Sebastian. 

To  these  situations  which  naturally  result  from  the 


104  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

story,  Shakespeare  has  added  in  Olivia's  household  a  set 
of  characters  whose  personality  is  such  that  amusing  situ- 
ations are  multiplied.  Thus  we  may  say  that  the  play  is 
one  of  situation  rather  than  of  action,  since  whatever  of 
action  there  is  in  it  leads  to  situation,  and  whatever  of 
character  there  is  in  it  leads  also  to  situation. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

I.  If  attention  is  constantly  given  to  creating  humorous 
situations,  will  character-development  necessarily  suffer? 
2.  Do  you  agree  with  the  Shakespearian  critic  Verplanck 
that  this  play  bears  no  indication  either  of  an  original 
groundwork  of  incident,  afterwards  enriched  by  the  addi- 
tions of  a  fuller  mind,  or  of  thoughts,  situations,  and  char- 
acters accidentally  suggested,  or  growing  unexpectedly  out 
of  the  story,  as  the  author  proceeded  ? 

II 

THE  WHIMSICAL   AND   OTHER   ALLUSIONS   IN   THE    PLAY 

Pick  out  and  explain  the  curious  allusions  in  the  play, 
noticing  that  these  may  be  classed  as  geographical,  mytho- 
logical, astrological,  or  referable  to  persons  or  customs  of 
the  time,  or  books  of  the  day.  For  examples  of  the  latter 
class,  note  Sir  Toby's  'diluculo  surgere'  (II.  iii.),  for 
'Saluberrimum  est  dilucolu  surgere,'  an  adage  from  Lilly's 
Grammar,  doubtless  one  of  Shakespeare's  text-books  at  the 
Edward  VI.  School  in  Stratford ;  and  Viola's  'Some  Mol- 
lification for  your  giant  sweet  lady'  (I.  v.), — an  allusion 


TWELFE  NIGHT  105 

to  the  innumerable  romances  whose  fair  ladies  are  guard- 
ed by  giants ;  for  Maria,  being  very  small,  Viola  ironically 
calls  her  giant,  and  asks  Olivia  to  pacify  her  because  she 
has  opposed  her  message.  (For  Shakespeare's  education 
and  school-books,  see  Bayne's  remarks  on  this  subject  in 
Brit.  Encyc.  art.  Shakespeare.)  The  whole  incident  of 
the  'possession'  of  Malvolio,  and  the  visit  of  Sir  Topas, 
probably  alludes  to  a  tract  published  in  1 599  by  Dr.  Hars- 
nett, — 'A  Discovery  of  the  Fraudulent  Practices  of  John 
Darrel,' — in  which  is  narrated  how  the  Starkeys'  chil- 
dren were  possessed  by  a  demon,  and  how  the  Puritan  min- 
ister, Mr.  Darrel,  was  concerned  in  it.  For  examples  of 
allusions  to  contemporary  customs,  see  Sir  Toby's  mention 
of  dances  no  longer  known, — 'Galliard,'  'Coranto,'  etc. 
As  an  example  of  allusions  to  persons  of  that  time,  Sir 
Toby's  reference  to  'Mistress  Mall's  picture,' — Mary 
Frith,  born  in  1584,  died  in  1659,  a  notorious  woman  who 
used  to  go  about  in  man's  clothing  and  was  the  target  for 
much  abuse.  Astrological  allusions:  'Were  we  not  born 
under  Taurus?'  'That's  sides  and  hearts,'  which  refers  to 
the  medical  astrology  still  preserved  in  patent-medicine 
almanacs,  where  the  figure  of  a  man  has  his  various  parts 
named  by  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac.  'Diana's  lip'  (I.  iv.), 
'Arion  on  the  Dolphin's  back'  I.  ii.),  are  examples  of 
mythological  allusions.  Of  the  geographical  allusions 
there  are  two  kinds,  the  real  and  the  sportive,— Illyria,  an 
example  of  the  one,  the  'Vapians'  and  the  'Equinoctial  of 
Queubus,'  of  the  other.  Go  on  through  the  play  classi- 
fying and  commenting  on  the  allusions.  What  was  a 
'catch'  ?  Give  an  example. 


106  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

QUERIES    FOR   DISCUSSION 

Are  the  odd  allusions  in  the  play  a  result  of  the  cor- 
rupt text,  ignorance,  ridicule  of  learning?  Or  are  they 
introduced  to  give  a  lively  and  contemporaneous  effect? 

Ill 

THE  DUKE  AND  SEBASTIAN 

How  does  the  play  set  off  these  two  lovers  against  each 
other?  Which  has  the  more  constant  nature?  Note  the 
evidences  of  the  Duke's  restlessness  and  changeableness ; 
how  soon  he  tires  of  the  music  he  calls  for,  of  the  clown's 
song  (II.  iv.).  Is  his  first  speech  to  Viola,  on  woman's 
constancy  before  the  song,  consistent  with  his  second, 
after  it?  Is  his  own  report  of  himself  true, — 'Unstaid 
and  skittish  in  all  motions  else  Save  in  the  constant  image 
of  the  one  beloved'?  Is  Olivia's  unattainableness  the 
main  source  of  her  desirableness  for  him?  How  is  it 
with  Sebastian?  Does  his  loyalty  in  love  seem  to  be  of 
the  sort  that  suffers  impairment  when  he  can  win  love 
easily?  The  Duke  craves  excess  in  music  in  order  that 
his  'appetite  may  sicken  and  so  die;'  Sebastian  wishes 
'to  steep  his  soul  in  Lethe.'  Do  you  think  Sebastian  and 
Viola  alike  in  more  than  appearance  ?  Which  is  the  quick- 
er-witted?  Is  the  Duke's  amicable  acceptance  of  the  in- 
evitable and  transference  of  his  love  to  Viola  in  keeping 
with  his  character?  Do  you  think  Viola  shows  promise 
of  special  facility  for  preventing  the  moody  Duke  from 
tiring  of  her?  Note  that  he  calls  her  his  'fancy's  queen.' 


TWELFE  NIGHT  107 

QUERY  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  the  Duke  important  chiefly  as  the  inspirer  of  Viola's 
devoted  love? 

IV 

VIOLA  AND  OLIVIA 

In  what  respects  are  the  situations  of  Viola  and  Olivia 
alike  ?  When  the  play  opens,  both  are  mourning  the  loss 
of  a  brother,  and  while  this  is  made  to  point  out  the  indi- 
viduality of  Olivia,  after  the  first  few  lines  we  hear  little 
more  of  Viola's  grief.  Can  you  suggest  any  reason  for 
this?  Does  Viola's  love  for  the  Duke  absorb  her  any 
more  than  Olivia's  love  absorbs  her  when  she  comes  to 
feel  the  same?  Viola  and  Olivia  are  also  alike  in  giving 
their  love  without  solicitation;  but  Olivia  woos  directly, 
Viola,  in  disguise,  implies  her  love,  and  though  her  in- 
nuendoes are  all  understood  by  the  audience,  they  are 
unappreciated  by  the  Duke.  What  justification  can  be 
made  for  the  unblushing  love-making  of  Olivia  ?  It  could 
be  justified  by  her  rank,  which  was  so  much  higher  than 
that  of  the  supposed  page  that  advances  should  come  from 
her.  What  signs  are  there  that  Viola's  love  was  superior 
to  Olivia's?  Olivia's  seems  to  have  been  founded  on 
external  liking,  else  she  would  not  have  been  as  satisfied 
with  Sebastian  as  with  Cesario;  while  Viola's,  though  it 
may  have  had  no  deeper  foundation,  was  signalized  by  un- 
selfishness, for  she  used  every  eloquent  art  of  which  she  was 


io8  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

capable  to  urge  her  master's  suit.  Notice  in  the  first  scene 
between  Viola  and  the  Duke  how  she  tries  to  get  out  of 
going  to  Olivia,  doubting  her  own  ability,  etc.  Do  you 
think  she  really  doubted  it,  or  that  it  was  difficult  for  her 
on  account  of  her  own  love  for  the  Duke?  Notice  in  the 
scene  with  Olivia  her  woman's  anxiety  to  see  her  rival's 
face.  What  do  you  think  instigated  her  remark,  'Excellent- 
ly done,  if  God  did  all.'  Was  it  a  sudden  touch  of  jealousy? 
It  was  clearly  not  the  proper  thing  for  an  ambassador 
pressing  his  master's  suit  to  say.  How  is  it  with  the  rest  of 
the  interview?  Is  her  sarcastic  tone  judicious?  Does  it 
pique  the  nonchalant  Olivia?  Does  her  eloquence  later, 
when  she  is  assured  of  Olivia's  obstinacy,  reflect  her  own 
feelings  for  the  Duke?  What  effect  does  it  have  on 
Olivia?  Is  it  well-calculated  to  arouse  her  interest?  In 
Act  II.  scene  iv.,  which  do  you  think  had  the  right  con- 
ception of  woman's  love, — the  Duke  or  Cesario?  What 
do  you  think  of  Olivia's  saying  that  'Love  sought  is 
good,  but  given  unsought  is  better'?  Which  of  the  two 
characters  show  the  more  humor?  Notice  Viola's  readi- 
ness in  parrying  questions  that  trench  upon  her  sex.  Olivia, 
on  the  other  hand,  can  hold  her  own  in  a  bout  of  wit 
with  the  fool,  but  she  is  perhaps  not  so  quick-witted  as 
Viola.  We  can  imagine  Viola  at  once  seeing  through 
Malvolio's  attempt  at  pleasing  Olivia,  instead  of  taking 
him  for  mad,  as  Olivia  did. 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Which  is  the  best  lover,  the  Duke,  Sebastian,  Olivia,  or 
Viola? 


TWELFE  NIGHT  109 

V 

SIR  TOBY  AND  MARIA,  AND  THEIR  BUTTS  OR  DUPES 

Show  how  the  droll  situations  of  the  play  are  mainly 
contrived  by  some  of  the  characters  in  order  to  make  others 
their  laughing-stocks.  Who  are  Sir  Toby's  butts?  Is  Sir 
Toby  attached  to  Sir  Andrew,  or  does  he  only  make  use 
of  him  for  profit  as  well  as  fun?  (See  Sir  Toby's  reply 
to  Fabian  (III.  iii.).  Other  instances  to  the  same  effect? 
Why  does  Maria  join  forces  with  Sir  Toby?  Is  she  in 
fact  the  leader  of  the  scheme,  or  is  Fabian's  story  of  its 
origin  true?  What  part  does  the  fool  play  in  the  game, 
and  why?  Note  his  private  grudge  against  Malvolio.  Is  it 
a  dramatic  mistake  that  even  the  heroine  is  made  the  butt 
of  these  merry-makers?  Trace  Fabian's  part  in  the  duel- 
ling plot  against  Sir  Andrew  and  Viola.  Do  these  plots 
recoil  in  any  way  against  the  plotters  ?  Sir  Toby  and  Sir 
Andrew  both  get  some  home-truths  from  Malvolio  while 
they  are  eavesdropping,  while  for  Fabian  and  Maria  these 
thrusts  of  Malvolio's  are  just  as  good  fun  as  that  which 
the  knights  enjoy  better.  How  does  some  of  the  later  fun 
recoil  against  Toby  and  Sir  Andrew?  Are  the  Puri- 
tans made  fun  of  in  Malvolio's  person? 

QUERY  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Are  the  characters  least  scathed  by  the  fun  for  that 
reason  superior  to  the  others? 


no  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

VI 

MINOR  CHARACTERS 

The  fun  of  the  play  is  capped  by  the  presence  of  a  par- 
ticularly clever  fool  whose  function  of  making  every  one 
the  butt  of  his  wit  makes  one  of  the  least  important  of  the 
characters  represent  the  special  drollery  of  the  whole  play. 
The  only  grudge  he  bears  is  against  the  man  who  does 
not  appreciate  fun — who  calls  him  a  'barren  rascal.'  De- 
scribe the  passages  in  which  he  particularly  shines.  Of 
the  minor  characters  the  fool  is  minor  only  through 
his  station  and  unimportance  in  the  plot;  he  really  occu- 
pies much  space  in  the  play  and  in  fact  pervades  it.  How 
is  Antonio  connected  with  the  plot?  What  traits  of  his 
does  the  play  bring  out?  Is  his  fondness  for  Sebastian 
unnatural?  How  is  he  concerned  in  the  foolery  of  the 
play?  Is  he  necessary  to  the  plot?  As  the  fool  represents 
the  merry-making  spirit  of  the  play,  so  Malvolio  stands 
for  the  dupes  of  it.  Does  any  one  sympathize  with  him? 
Who  shows  the  clearest  understanding  of  his  faults?  (I. 
v.).  What  signs  are  there  in  the  play  of  Malvolio's  being 
a  Puritan?  Is  there  any  evidence  against  it?  Is  Maria 
right,  for  example,  when  she  says,  'The  Devil  a  Puritan 
he  is  or  anything  constantly  but  a  time-server,'  etc.  ?  That 
the  character  of  Malvolio  was  generally  taken  on  the 
stage  as  a  portrait  of  the  Puritan,  and  that  Shakespeare 
must  have  known  it  would  borrow  some  of  its  popularity 
from  being  so  .considered,  seems  not  to  be  denied ;  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  hardly  seem  to  be  proven  that  Shake- 


TWELFE  NIGHT  „, 

speare  thought  he  was  drawing  a  genuine  Puritan.  Show 
Malvolio's  character,  his  connection  with  the  other  char- 
acters and  with  the  plot  and  the  foolery  of  the  play,  and 
state  the  argument  for  and  against  Shakespeare's  meaning 
to  make  fun  of  him  as  a  Puritan. 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  it  a  defect  in  the  play  that  the  fool,  who  has  less  to 
do  with  the  plot,  is  more  important  than  Antonio,  who 
has  somewhat  more  to  do  with  it?  Does  it  show  that  the 
main  interest  of  the  play  is  in  comic  situation  rather  than 
in  character  or  dramatic  motive? 

VII 

THE  POETIC  FIGURES  IN  THE  PLAY 

Observe  the  various  figures  used  throughout  the  play,  as 
to  whether  they  are  drawn  from  nature  or  from  other 
sources ;  for  example,  the  first  speech  of  the  Duke  bristles 
with  metaphor.  Note  that  he  speaks  of  music  as  thcfood  of 
love,  and  bids  the  musicians  play  on  that  the  appetite  may 
have  a  surfeit,  images  drawn  from  physical  nature;  then 
that  the  music  came  o'er  his  ear  like  the  sweet  sound  that 
breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets,  stealing  and  giving  odor. 
We  should  expect  here  some  continuation  in  the  language 
of  sound ;  but  the  Duke  continues  as  if  he  had  said  wind 
instead  of  sound,  and  then  wind  is  personified,  for  it 
breathes  instead  of  blows  on  the  bank  of  violets,  and  it 


ii2  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

steals  their  odor  and  gives  it  to  him, — the  music  is  so 
sweet  that  it  seems  as  if  its  sounds  came  laden  with  the 
scent  of  violets  to  his  ear.  Here  sound  is  personified  at 
first  as  merely  breathing,  then  it  takes  on  moral  attributes 
and  steals  and  gives.  Pick  out  and  explain  other  figures 
in  the  same  way.  Which  of  the  characters  use  the  most 
beautiful  imagery?  Are  there  any  who  use  none  at  all? 

QUERIES   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  there  any  special  fitness  in  the  imagery  used  to  the 
character  using  it?  Docs  the  imagery  used  help  you  to 
form  an  opinion  of  the  characters? 

VIII 

THE  WIT  OF  THB  PLAY 

What  are  the  main  causes  of  amusement  in  the  play? 
The  audience,  notice,  is  not  kept  in  the  dark  one  instant 
about  any  of  the  characters.  Thus  one  of  the  sources  of 
amusement  lies  in  the  fact  that  while  the  audience  occu- 
pies somewhat  the  attitude  of  omnipotence,  it  has  the 
pleasure  of  observing  the  characters  of  the  play  living  their 
lives  in  the  purblind  way  usual  to  mortals.  Lessing  said 
that  a  comedy  should  make  us  laugh  at  vices,  but  the  vices 
must  be  those  of  characters  who  have  good  qualities  also. 
Does  'Twelfe  Night'  answer  to  this  description?  Ana- 
lyze the  causes  why  the  fun  of  the  play  is  funny. 


TWELFE  NIGHT  113 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Which  of  the  characters  cause  amusement  as  the  result 
of  circumstances  over  which  they  have  no  control?  How 
do  each  of  these  cause  amusement  unconsciously?  Which 
of  the  characters  cause  amusement  through  a  conscious 
intention  of  making  fun? 


THE  TEMPEST 

Until  a  few  years  ago  no  one  had  succeeded  in  finding 
the  Play  or  Novel  on  which  the  European  part  of  the  plot 
of  "The  Tempest"  was  founded. 

An  early  German  Play,  "The  Fair  Sidea"  had  been 
brought  forward  on  account  of  some  resemblances  to 
"The  Tempest"  Yet  it  is  obviously  not  its  source  but 
rather  an  imitation  or  variant  indirectly  drawn  from  a 
similar  foundation  story. 

Edmund  Dorer,  a  special  student  of  Spanish  Literature 
first  called  attention  (Jan.  31,  1885,)  to  the  story  more 
closely  resembling  "The  Tempest"  than  any  other,  as  it 
occurs  in  a  collection  of  tales  by  Antonio  de  Eslava,  called 
Las  Noches  de  Invierno,  or  "Winter  Nights,"  published 
in  Madrid  in  1609. 

Like  other  such  collections  of  stories,  such  as  the  Italian 
collection  of  Bandello,  and  the  French  of  Belleforest,  used 
by  Shakespeare,  Eslava's  collection  was  translated,  and,  in 
default  of  the  original  from  one  of  the  later  editions,  as 
translated  into  German  in  1683  (Noches  de  Invierno 
Winternachte  aus  dem  Spanischen  in  die  Deutsche  sprach 
versetzet)  a  summary  of  this  story  was  given  in  English 
for  the  first  time  as  a  satisfactory  source  of  "The  Temp- 
est" in  the  "First  Folio  Edition"  of  the  Play  (see  pp.  85- 
93  and  Introduction ;  also  for  an  extract  and  summary  of 
"The  Fair  Sidea,"  pp.  94-95). 

What  may  be  called  the  American  half  of  the  plot  evi- 
"4 


THE  TEMPEST  u5 

dently  owes  suggestions  to  pamphlet  accounts  of  the  storm 
and  wreck  and  other  experiences  met  with  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gates,  Sir  George  Sommers  and  others  during  their  voy- 
age of  discovery  to  the  Bermudas  in  1610  (see  pp.  92,  99, 
and  Notes  pp.  114,  125-127,  etc.,  for  extracts.) 

Gonzalo's  speech,  too,  follows  pretty  closely  a  passage 
in  Florio's  Montaigue.  (For  this  passage  see  Note  on 
II.  i.  153-160). 

ACT  I 

THE  SCHEMES  OF  PROSPERO. 

The  first  scene  shows  the  storm  in  progress.  Is  there 
any  clew  given  to  the  reader  that  it  is  a  magic  tempest? 
What  is  Prospero's  main  object  in  having  the  ship's  crew 
and  passengers  cast  upon  his  island?  Is  it  to  wreak  ven- 
geance on  his  enemies,  to  work  the  charm  of  love  between 
Ferdinand  and  Miranda,  or  by  means  of  that  to  reinstate 
himself?  In  what  way  would  this  love  work  to  his  ad- 
vantage? Notice  the  natural  way  in  which  the  reader 
is  put  in  possession  of  the  necessary  information  about  the 
past  of  Prospero  and  Miranda.  Warburton  says  of  this 
that  it  is  the  finest  example  he  knows  of  retrospective  nar- 
ration for  the  sake  of  informing  the  audience  of  the  plot. 
How  much  of  the  plot  is  permitted  to  come  out  in  this 
act?  Why  does  Prospero  so  repeatedly  urge  Miranda's 
attention?  Is  she  abstracted,  is  he,  or  is  she  already  be- 
ginning to  be  drowsy?  Why  was  Ferdinand  the  first  to 
quit  the  ship?  Since  Prospero  already  knows,  why  does 


u6  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

he  ask  Ariel  what  time  it  is? 

POINTS.  I.  Explain  the  nautical  terms.  'Master's 
whistle.'  In  Shakespeare's  time  naval  commanders  wore 
great  whistles  of  gold.  A  modern  boatswain's  badge  is  a 
silver  whistle  suspended  to  the  neck  by  a  lanyard.  Holt  ex- 
tols the  excellence  of  Shakespeare's  sea-terms,  but  makes  an 
exception  of  Gonzalo's  'cable,'  which  he  says  is  of  no  use 
unless  the  ship  is  at  anchor,  and  here  it  is  plainly  sailing;  to 
which  Furness  replies,  Shakespeare  anchors  Gonzalo's 
hopes  on  the  boatswain's  'gallows  complexion,'  and  the 
cable  of  that  anchor  was  the  hangman's  rope.  2.  'Wash- 
ing of  ten  tides.'  An  allusion  to  the  custom  of  hanging 
pirates  at  low-water  mark.  (See  Notes  I.  i.  67  First 
Folio  Edition).  3.  Compare  this  storm  with  that  in 
'Pericles,' — 'Do  not  assist  the  storm,'  etc.,  with  'Per.' 
III.  i.  51-60.  4.  Explain  'To  trash  for  over-topping,'  I. 
ii.  98,  which  is  a  blending  of  two  metaphors.  Trash  re- 
fers to  the  habit  of  hanging  a  weight  round  the  neck  of 
the  fleetest  of  a  pack  of  hounds,  to  keep  him  from  getting 
ahead  of  the  rest;  and  'overtopping'  to  trees  shooting  up 
above  the  others  in  \  grove,  which  have  to  be  lopped,  to 
keep  them  even.  5.  What  does  Prospero  mean  by  saying, 
'Now  I  arise'?  Simply,  now  I  get  up,  and  now  my  for- 
tunes change?  6.  'Still  vex'd  Bermoothes.'  Bermudas, 
spelled  in  several  ways  in  Shakespeare's  time,  and  called 
'still  vex'd,'  from  accounts  of  tempests  prevailing  there. 
7.  'Argier.'  The  name  of  Algiers  till  after  the  Restora- 
tion. 8.  'One  thing  she  did.1  What?  Afce  we  anywhere 
told  what? 


THE  TEMPEST  n7 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  the  long  monologue  of  Prospero  in  this  act  de- 
tract from  its  dramatic  force?  Did  the  arrangement  of 
Shakespeare's  stage  make  this  convenient.  (See  descrip- 
tion of  the  threefold  stage  of  the  Globe  Theatre  in  "An- 
thonie  and  Cleopatra,"  pp.  172-173).  Is  the  monologue 
rightly  disused  in  modern  plays?  Why?  Compare  Ibsen's 
plays  in  this  respect. 

ACT  II 

THE  COUNTERPLOT 

Tell  the  story  of  Act  II,  showing  how  its  main  event 
is  the  conspiracy  of  Antonio  and  Sebastian  against  Alonzo 
and  Gonzalo.  Is  the  issue  left  undecided  long,  so  that  it 
threatens  the  result?  How  and  why  does  Ariel  prevent 
the  success  of  it?  Might  it  not  have  been  to  Prospero's 
advantage  to  have  the  King  killed,  since  Ferdinand  would 
then  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Naples?  Did  Ariel's  inter- 
vention kill  the  plot?  What  light  is  thrown  on  the  char- 
acters by  scene  i.  of  this  act  ?  Do  you  think  it  is  intended 
to  be  shown  that  Gonzalo  is  prosy  and  tiresome,  although 
good,  or  only  that  the  lower  and  more  frivolous  characters 
find  him  so?  Which  is  the  likelier,  that  Shakespeare  in- 
tended the  dialogue  about  Gonzalo's  ideal  commonwealth 
to  be  a  satire  upon  it,  or  favorable  to  Utopian  schemes? 
Which  comes  out  the  better  at  last  in  the  wit-combat, — 
the  quick  Antonio  and  Sebastian,  or  the  thoughtful  Gon- 
zalo ?  Is  Sebastian's  solicitude  about  Claribel  a  sign  of  a 


ii8  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

kindlier  nature  than  Antonio's  ?  Are  there  any  indications 
that  Antonio's  mind  is  more  alert  than  Sebastian's? 
What  purposes  of  the  action  or  plot  are  served  by  the  in- 
troduction of  Claribel?  Is  the  King's  grief  as  great  for 
the  daughter  as  for  the  son?  How  does  his  paternal  af- 
fection compare  with  Prospero's?  Compare  Antonio's 
speech,  suggesting  the  murder  to  Sebastian,  with  similar 
speeches  in  Shakespeare  ( Macbeth 's,  King  John's,  Oliver's 
in  'As  You  Like  It,'  Claudius'  in  'Hamlet').  In  the  sec- 
ond scene  of  this  act,  how  far  is  a  second  counter-plot 
foreshadowed  ? 

POINTS,  i.  The  jokes  of  Act  II:  their  explanation  (i. 
e.f  'dollar'  and  'dolour,'  the  'eye  of  green,'  etc.).  2.  When 
were  watches  first  used  in  Europe?  3.  Tell  the  story  of 
^Eneas  and  Dido.  4.  What  myth  is  alluded  to  in  'his 
word  is  more  than  the  miraculous  harp'?  5.  Gonzalo's 
Commonwealth — its  origin  from  Montaigne.  It  is  com- 
monly supposed  that  Shakespeare  must  have  borrowed  this 
reference  from  the  translation.  He  may  have  taken  it 
directly  from  the  French.  6.  Show  the  bearing  of  Sebas- 
tian's phrase,  'I  am  standing  water,'  with  its  context. 
(That  is,  at  the  turn  of  the  tide  between  ebb  and  full.)  7. 
'The  man  i'  the  moon,'  and  the  folk-lore  about  it.  8. 
Natural  history  on  the  island.  Poet-Lore,  April,  1894. 
Notes  and  News). 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  it  a  defect  in  the  action  of  the  play  that  the  danger 
arising  from  the  most  important  counter-plot  is  allayed 
so  soon? 


THE  TEMPEST  n9 

ACT  III 

NEW  PLOTS  AGAINST  PROSPERO 

What  new  turns  are  given  events  in  Act  III  ?  Scene  i 
continues  Ferdinand's  love-making,  and  shows  no  hind- 
drances  there  to  Prospero's  plans;  but  scene  ii  develops 
Caliban's  plot,  and  scene  iii  shows  Sebastian  and  Antonio 
making  ready  to  carry  out  the  purpose  which  had  at  first 
been  defeated.  Give  an  account  of  the  scene  in  Act  II 
which  leads  up  to  this  plot  in  connection  with  its  sequel 
in  this  act.  Ariel  is  baffled  in  his  attempts  to  breed  con- 
tention between  the  conspirators  by  Trinculo's  good  na- 
ture, but  finally  he  leads  them  off  with  his  music.  Scene 
iii  represents  Alonzo  and  his  courtiers  bewildered  and 
tired  by  their  fruitless  tramps  through  the  island,  and  in 
just  the  temper  to  be  confused  by  the  dumb-show  and  the 
harpies.  Note  the  dependence  placed,  throughout  'The 
Tempest,'  on  the  effect  of  'solemn  and  strange  music.' 
Antonio's  plot,  being  resumed,  is  blocked  by  Ariel's  magic 
show  and  his  accusation.  Note  how  the  supernatural 
quality  of  the  scene  makes  his  speech  affect  their  con- 
sciences as  if  they  were  themselves  accusing  themselves, 
and  how  it  drives  them  into  mental  disorder.  Dr.  Buck- 
nill,  a  specialist  in  brain  disease,  who  has  commented  on 
Shakespeare's  knowledge  of  such  maladies,  explains  that 
Alonzo's  frenzy  leads  him  by  an  imaginative  melancholy 
to  the  idea  of  suicide,  while  the  madness  of  Antonio  and 
Sebastian  expresses  itself  in  the  idea  of  desperate  fight. 

POINTS,     i.  What  is  a 'catch/  a 'tabor'?    Give  an  ac- 


120  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

count  of  the  music  in  the  play,  and  show  the  fitness  of  its 
different  effects  on  the  different  characters.  2.  Explain 
the  allusions,  'unicorns,'  'one  tree,  the  Phoenix  throne,' 
'mountaineers,'  with  'wallets  of  flesh,'  etc.  3.  What  is  a 
harpy?  Give  an  account  of  the  mention  of  harpies  in 
Virgil  (JEneid,  Book  III),  and  'Paradise  Regained'  (Book 
II).  What  appropriateness  to  the  purpose  in  this  'quaint 
device'? 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Do  the  counter-plots  introduced  in  this  act  mainly  affect 
events  or  character? 

ACT  IV 

THB  CONFUSION   OF  THE   PLOTTERS 

Show  how  the  story  of  Act  IV  consists  in  the  smooth- 
ing down  of  all  that  disturbs  Prospero's  designs,  and  fore- 
shadows the  complete  reconciliation  of  the  last  act.  The 
lovers,  whose  readiness  to  fall  in  with  Prospero's  plan  has 
made  his  task  light  so  far  as  they  are  concerned,  could 
only  imperil  his  and  their  future  by  a  premature  union; 
and  Ferdinand,  having  stood  the  test  of  hard  work,  is  now 
induced,  by  an  awed  and  holy  mood,  produced  by  art,  to 
keep  his  good  resolutions.  Describe  the  mask,  and  show  its 
meaning  and  fitness  for  Prospero's  purposes.  Wljy  is 
Prospero  so  disturbed  at  the  reminder  of  so  paltry  a  plot 
as  that  of  Caliban  and  his  associates?  Is  it  likely  that 
these  drunken  fellows  could  frame  any  plot  that  would 
be  but  as  gossamer  before  his  art?  Is  it  natural  that  so 
low  a  creature  as  Caliban  should  show  more  intelligence 


THE  TEMPEST  121 

than  Stephano  and  Trinculo  in  disregarding  Ariel's  'stale' 
set  to  catch  them  ?  How  do  you  explain  his  superior  cau- 
tion? Describe  the  device  employed  by  Prospero  and 
Ariel  to  rout  these  plotters.  Would  it  be  effective  on  an 
English  stage? 

POINTS,  i.  Explanation  of  classical  allusions.  'Hy- 
men's lamps,'  'Phoebus'  steeds,'  Ceres,  Iris,  Juno,  etc.; 
'dusky  Dis,'  'Paphos,'  etc.  2.  The  botany  of  Act  IV. 
What  is  'stover,'  'furze,'  gorse?  3.  Was  Prospero's  'line' 
a  lime-tree  or  a  clothes-line?  4.  Explanation  of  the  jokes 
of  the  act.  5.  Natural  history  on  the  island  again:  the 
'blind  mole,'  'barnacles,'  'apes,'  'pard,'  etc. 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  is  the  punishment  devised  for  the  lesser  plotters 
corporal  and  for  the  greater  ones  psychical? 

ACTV 
PROSPERO'S  TRIUMPH 

Sum  up  the  results  consummated  by  Prospero's  magic. 
Note  Gonzalo's  account  of  the  play,  and  show  the  ethical 
results,  and  Ariel's  part  in  Prospero's  course  of  reconcilia- 
tion. Explain  how,  if  Prospero  had  regained  his  duke- 
dom, and  yet,  if  'all  of  us,'  as  Gonzalo  says,  had  not  found 
ourselves,  the  triumph  would  have  been  material,  not 
ethical.  Show  how  this  effect  is  enhanced  by  the  plan  to 
awaken  dismay  and  remorse  in  the  minds  of  the  evil-doers 
and  how  the  climax  in  Prospero's  triumph  is  reached  by 
the  victory  wrought  in  his  own  mind  when  he  determines 


122  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

to  take  part  with  his  'nobler  reason  'gainst  his  fury*  in 
order  to  restore  his  enemies  to  themselves.  What  indica- 
tions are  there  in  the  play  that  Prospero  was  high-strung 
and  spirited,  — a  revenge-loving  Italian  ?  Trace  the  effects 
of  remorse  on  each  of  the  ill-doers.  Is  there  any  reason  to 
suppose  that  Antonio,  Stephano,  or  Trinculo  are  repent- 
ant ?  Is  it  out  of  character  for  Caliban  to  be  ? 

POINTS,  i.  The  'Faerie*  of  the  play.  Compare  with 
that  of  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream/  (See  'Fairy-lore  of 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  Poet  Lore.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  177, 
April,  1891.)  Victor  Hugo  notes  the  contrast  as  fol- 
lows: '"Midsummer  Night's  Dream"  depicts  the  action 
of  the  invisible  world  on  man;  "The  Tempest"  symbo- 
lizes the  action  of  man  on  the  invisible  world.'  (See  also 
the  'Supernatural  in  Shakespeare's  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream." '  in  Poet  Lore,  Vol.  V,  p.  490,  October,  1893; 
in  Shakespeare's  'Tempest,'  p.  557,  November,  1893.) 

2.  The  duration  of  the  play.     Explain  how  it  follows 
the  'unities';    and  in  this  connection  show  the  probable 
equality  of  'three  glasses'  to  three  hours,  and  Shakespeare's 
mistake.     (Shakespeare's  use  of  nautical  terms,  approved 
by  all  seamen,  seems  to  be  here  at  fault  in  supposing  a 
'glass'  equal  to  one,  instead  of  to  a  half,  hour.) 

3.  The  game  of  chess  and  its  pertinence  here:     Be- 
cause so  wise  a  father  would  have  taught  his  daughter  so 
intellectual  a  game;  because  Queen  Elizabeth  was  fond  of 
it,  and  it  was  par  excellence  a  'royal  game';   or  because 
Naples  was  the  source  and  center  of  the  chess  furore  at 
just  this  time? 

4.  Where  is  the  scene  of  the  'Tempest'  laid?    Is  the 


THE  TEMPEST  123 

island  real  or  unreal  ?  (The  main  conjectures  for  a  known 
place  are  Hunter's  that  it  was  Lampedusa,  and  Elze's 
that  it  was  Pantelaria.  Both  argue  that  each  island  was  so 
situated  in  the  Mediterranean,  between  Milan  or  its  port 
and  Algiers,  whence  the  sailors  landed  Sycorax,  as  to  suit 
the  requirements.  Elze  further  urges  the  name  of  a  town 
on  the  opposite  African  coast,  Calibia,  as  suggesting  Cali- 
ban's name.  For  an  argument  that  the  island  is  vaguely 
placed  in  the  Mediterranean  to  suit  the  Old  World  plot 
and  yet  by  many  details  made  suggestive  of  the  New 
World,  see  Introduction  to  'The  Tempest'  in  First 
Folio  Edition.) 

5.  The  influence  of  the  New  World  on  the  writing  of 
'The  Tempest,'  and  all  allusions  traceable  to  it.  (See 
Notes  of  same  edition  for  extracts  from  pamphlets  on 
America,  etc.) 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  constitutes  the  interest  in  'The  Tempest,' — 
character,  dramatic  situations,  movements,  plot,  poetry,  or 
moral  purpose? 

VI 
CHARACTER  STUDIES 

I.   PROSPERO  AND  HIS  SERVANTS 

With  the  first  word  Shakespeare  introduces  Prospero 
as  one  who  can  raise  and  calm  such  a  tempest  as  scene  i 
describes,  and  the  magician  admits  the  power  Miranda 
ascribes  to  him.  Show  from  the  story  what  his  plans  and 


124  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

motives  were  likely  to  prove.  Would  a  sense  of  his  own 
former  neglect  of  duty  be  likely  to  embitter  him  against 
his  brother  or  make  him  excuse  him  ?  Does  heThow  signs 
of  either?  Prospero's  magic,  his  gajrment,  books,  staff. 
How  far  is  his  magic  in  accord  with  the  popular  notions 
of  such  art?  (See  'Prospcro  and  Magic,'  Poet  Lore, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  144,  March,  1891.) 

Show  Ariel's  qualities.  What  caused  his  first  impa- 
tience? Is  Prospero  unnecessarily  harsh  and  imperious 
with  him  ?  Aside  from  the  popular  supposition  that  spirits 
or  familiars  obeying  magicians  were  always  reluctant  to 
serve  longer  than  one  hour  (and,  therefore,  says  Scot's 
'Discovery  of  Witchcraft,'  'the  magician  must  be  careful 
to  dismiss  him'),  how  can  you  explain  this  quarrel, — as  a 
dramatic  expedient  giving  occasion  for  telling  Ariel's 
story,  or  revealing  the  characters  of  both  Prospero  and 
Ariel?  Note,  also,  its  further  use  in  introducing  Pros- 
pero's  second  servant,  Caiman,  and  his  story.  How  do 
you  explain  Ariel's  irrelevant  rejoinder:  'Yes,  Caliban, 
her  son';  and  Prospero's  angry,  'Dull  thing,  I  say  so,' 
etc.?  Do  you  think  Moulton  right  in  supposing  that 
Prospero  governs  'this  incarnation  of  caprice  by  outca- 
pricing  him';  Rolfe,  in  supposing  that  Prospero  is  irri- 
table because  under  the  strain  and  suspense  of  conducting 
affairs  within  three  hours  perfectly,  and  upon  which  ac- 
curacy hangs  his  future  and  the  happiness  of  his  daugh- 
ter? This  was  also  his  only  chance  of  retrieving  his  own 
past  error. 

Contrast  Ariel  with  Caliban.  Show  the  skill  of  Caliban's 
first  appearance  as  some  slow-moving  thing,  half  of  water, 


THE  TEMPEST  I25 

half  of  earth,  in  contrast  with  Ariel's  second  appearance 
as  a  nymph.  What  may  be  learned  of  Caliban's  traits 
from  Miranda's  speech  (as  in  the  Folio,  but  by  various 
editors  given  to  Prospero)  :  'Abhorred  slave,'  etc.?  Do 
you  think  this  speech  should  be  given  to  Prospero?  What 
signs  are  there  of  Caliban's  having  a  good  mind?  Do  you 
think  Prospero's  tyranny  over  Caliban  altogether  justi- 
fied? Is  Caliban's  penitence  consistent  with  his  nature? 
How  far  does  Ariel  proceed  independently  of  Prospero? 
Is  he  really  fond  of  him  ? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  there  any  bond  of  love  between  Prospero  and  his  ser- 
vants? Do  the  relations  between  them  illustrate  the  im- 
possibility of  gratitude? 

2.   THE   LOVERS 

Is  the  love  of  Ferdinand  and  Miranda  an  enchantment 
caused  by  Prospero,  or  an  emotion  he  can  help,  but  not 
cause?  If  not  caused  by  him,  does  Shakespeare  depart 
from  magic  to  the  detriment  of  the  play?  Would  it  be 
better,  for  example,  if  a  love  philter  was  introduced  for 
consistency's  sake?  (For  literary  use  of  the  love  philter, 
see  Tennyson's  'Lucretius.')  Does  it  reflect  against  Ferdi- 
nand's courage  that  he  was  first  to  quit  the  ship?  Are  Mi- 
randa's speeches  about  her  grandmother  (I,  ii,  140)  and 
to  Caliban  inconsistent  with  the  maidenly  innocence  as- 
sumed to  be  characteristic  of  her?  Do  you  consider  her 


126  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

talk  with  Ferdinand  (III,  i)  in  character?  Is  she  unduti- 
ful  to  her  father?  Unmaidenly  in  her  speedy  declaration 
of  love  (III,  i,  67,  89,  94-106,  no)  ?  Should  she  be  rep- 
resented as  ignorant  or  innocent  of  the  world,  or  as  in 
love?  Describe  the  characters  and  relations  to  each  other 
of  the  lovers  from  all  that  is  given  about  them.  Compare 
with  Florizel  and  Perdita  in  'The  Winter's  Tale.' 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Are  Miranda  and  Ferdinand  undeveloped  characters 
whose  relation  to  each  other  is  more  important  to  the  play 
than  they  themselves  are? 

3.   THE  MINOR  CHARACTERS 

Which  is  the  most  important  of  the  lesser  characters 
and  why?  Is  Gonzalo  blamable  at  all  under  the  circum- 
stances for  following  the  command  to  turn  Prospero  and 
Miranda  adrift?  Why  is  Gonzalo  of  better  cheer  than 
his  companions?  What  do  you  think  of  his  philosophy  in 
itself  and  as  an  index  to  his  character?  Is  his  knowledge 
superior  to  that  of  his  companions?  Does  he  suspect  the 
evil  intent  of  Antonio  and  Sebastian?  Show  how  his 
frankness  and  loyalty  came  out  in  Act  III,  and  how  his 
uprightness  is  rewarded  in  Act  V.  Do  you  think  it  sig- 
nificant that  he  closes  the  play?  Francisco  considered  as 
the  least  important  personage  in  the  play:  should  his 
speech  describing  Ferdinand's  swimming  be  given  to  Gon- 
zalo? The  sailors  considered  as  examples  of  Shakespeare's 


THE  TEMPEST  I2? 

skill  in  outline  portraits.  Are  Stephano  and  Trinculo 
more  highly  developed  types  than  Caliban?  Would  the 
play  be  better  if  they  were  left  out? 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Gonzalo  more  like  Polonius  in  'Hamlet'  or  Kent  in 
'Lear'? 


VII 

A    STUDY   OF   ARTISTIC   DESIGN 
THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  'THE  TEMPEST' 

Did  Shakespeare  typify  himself  as  Prospero?  Pros- 
pero  (says  Montegut)  alludes  to  his  own  age,  and  inti- 
mates that  the  time  has  come  for  retirement  to  private 
life.  What  indications  can  you  find  that  Prospero  images 
Shakespeare  ?  If  he  is  so  interpreted,  what  parts  may  Ariel 
and  Caliban  be  supposed  to  play?  Is  the  history  of  the 
Enchanted  Island  and  the  transformation  wrought  a  par- 
allel with  the  history  of  the  Stage  and  the  transformation 
Shakespeare  wrought?  According  to  Montegut,  Caliban 
stands  for  Marlowe,  Ariel  for  the  English  Genius  which 
Shakespeare  frees  from  its  barbaric  prison.  Dowden 
('Mind  and  Art  of  Shakespeare')  fancies  Prospero  as  the 
great  artist  lacking  at  first  in  practical  faculty,  cast  out 
therefore  from  practical  worldly  success ;  but  bearing  with 
him  Art  in  her  infancy,  the  child  Miranda,  finds  at  last  an 


128  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

enchanted  country  where  his  arts  can  work  their  magic, 
subduing  the  grosser  appetites  and  passions  (Caliban), 
and  commanding  the  offices  of  the  imaginative  genius  of 
poetry  (Ariel).  He  supposes  Ferdinand  to  be  Shake- 
speare's heir  as  a  playwright  (Fletcher).  Lowell  ('Arnong 
my  Books')  considers  that  the  characters  do  not  illustrate 
a  class  of  persons,  but  belong  to  universal  nature. — Imagi- 
nation embodied  in  Prospero;  Fancy  in  Ariel;  brute 
understanding  in  Caliban,  who,  with  his  wits  liquor- 
warmed,  plots  against  his  natural  lord,  the  higher  reason ; 
Miranda,  abstract  Womanhood ;  Ferdinand,  Youth,  com- 
pelled to  drudge  till  sacrifice  of  will  and  self  win  him  the 
ideal  in  Miranda.  Browning  makes  an  incidentally  inter- 
esting contribution  to  this  subject  by  symbolizing  in  Cali- 
bmn  rudimentary  theologizing  man,  in  his  poem  'Caliban.' 
(See  Poet  Lore,  Vol.  V,  p.  562,  November,  1893.) 

QUERIES   FOR  DISCUSSION 

i 

Is  'The  Tempest*  an  allegory?  Is  it  in  any  sense  an 
autobiographical  play?  Does  its  symbolism  have  much  in 
common  with  that  of  modern  symbolistic  plays,  such  as 
Maeterlinck's  'Joyzelle,'  for  example?  In  what  respects 
may  it  be  said,  do  you  think,  as  Maeterlinck  himself  has 
informed  us,  that  'Joyzelle'  grew  from  'The  Tempest?' 


THE  WINTER'S  TALE 

CONSIDERED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  GREENED  'PANDOSTO' 

AND  THE  'ALKESTIS'  OF  EURIPIDES 


SHAKESPEARE'S  INDEBTEDNESS  TO  GREENE 

The  story  of  'Pandosto'  falls  into  two  distinct  divisions; 
first,  the  story  of  Pandosto  and  Bellaria;  second,  the  story 
of  Dorastus  and  Fawnia.  Compare  each  of  these  two 
stories  with  the  two  stories  interwoven  in  the  play,  noting 
all  the  analogous  passages  and  the  use  Shakespeare  has 
made  of  them.  (For  Greene's  'Pandosto'  or  'History  of 
Dorastus  and  Fawnia'  see  'Shakespeare's  Library,'  or  pp. 
118-125  and  Notes  in  First  Folio  Edition. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Do  Shakespeare's  borrowed  and  additional  archaisms 
and  his  confusion  of  names  and  places  show  carelessness? 
Is  his  continuation  of  the  story  merely  a  playwright's  de- 
vice to  join  the  two  parts  of  the  plot  and  make  a  good 
stage  piece  end  happily?  (As  to  Coast  of  Bohemia  see 
Poet  Lore,  April,  1894),  also  in  "First  Folio  Editl'on>" 
pp.  176-177- 

129 


130  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

II 

THE  RESEMBLANCES  TO  THE  'ALKBSTIS'  OF  EURIPIDES 

In  Greene  and  in  Shakespeare  the  King  wishes  the 
Queen's  death  because  he  is  uncomfortable  so  long  as  she 
lives,  and  he  prefers  his  comfort  to  aught  else,  taking  it  as 
his  conjugal  right  and  royal  prerogative.  (See  ii.  3,  I  and 
204.)  The  Queen,  understanding  this,  says,  "My  life 
stands  in  the  level  of  your  dreams,  which  I'll  lay  down." 
To  her  she  says,  "can  life  be  no  commodity"  when  love, 
"the  crown  and  comfort  of  her  life,"  is  gone.  So  Alkestis 
(see  any  translation  of  Euripides,  in  Bohn  edition,  literal 
prose  translation,  vol.  i.  p.  223)  says  she  "was  not  willing 
to  live  bereft"  of  Admetos,  therefore  she  did  not  spare 
herself  to  die  for  him,  "though  possessing  the  gifts  of 
bloomy  youth  wherein"  she  "delighted."  This  point  of 
correspondence  may  have  occurred  to  Shakespeare  and  sug- 
gested his  continuation  of  Greene's  novel.  Admetos'  image 
of  his  wife,  that  he  would  have  made  by  the  cunning 
hands  of  artists,  is  possibly  a  prototype  of  the  statue  of  the 
Queen  in  'The  Winter's  Tale,'  the  piece  "newly  per- 
formed by  that  rare  Italian  master,  Julio  Romano."  Com- 
pare also,  Herakles'  trial  of  Admetos  with  Paulina's  trial 
of  Leontes  (v.  i)  ;  and  Herakles'  restoration  of  the  un- 
known Alkestis  to  her  husband  with  Paulina's  bringing  the 
statue  of  the  Queen  to  life. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Shakespeare's  use  of  a  striking  incident  from  the 
'Alkestis'  too  close  not  to  have  been  suggested  by  it?  Does 


THE  WINTER'S  TALE  131 

it  show   his   intention   to  portray  in   Hermione  a  new 
Alkestis? 


Ill 

SHAKESPEARE'S  ORIGINALITY  IN  WORKING  OVER  HIS 

MATERIAL 

Note  Shakespeare's  departures  from  Greene  and  their 
significance.  Do  they  serve  two  ends, — make  the  play 
more  effective  for  stage  representation,  make  the  characters 
stronger?  Does  he  make  Leontes  more  attractive  than 
Greene  does  in  the  first  part  of  the  play?  Does  he  make 
him  worse  or  better  than  Pandosto  in  the  second  part? 
What  is  the  sole  trace  left  in  Shakespeare  of  the  father's 
guilty  passion  for  his  daughter  ?  Garinter,  in  Greene,  dies 
without  any  cause.  See  Shakespeare's  explanation  of  this, 
also  his  use  of  the  news  of  Mamillius'  death  to  strike 
shame  to  the  king's  heart.  Greene  makes  the  king  relent 
as  soon  as  he  hears  the  oracle.  Contrast  Shakespeare's 
conduct  of  the  scene  at  this  point. 

Notice  the  difference  in  his  treatment  of  the  character 
of  the  cup-bearer.  Does  he  make  it  his  chief  care  to 
enhance  the  character  of  the  Queen?  Note  the  new  char- 
acters introduced, — Paulina,  Antigonus,  Autolycus,  the 
clown  (in  place  of  the  wife  in  Greene).  Conjecture  any 
reason  for  his  different  names.  The  introduction  of 
Autolycus  makes  the  play  more  amusing  on  the  stage,  but 
is  his  part  as  well  planned  as  Capnio's  for  leading  up  to 
the  denouement?  Greene  lets  his  mariners  off  alive  after 
they  set  Fawnia  afloat.  Shakespeare  wrecks  his,  and  makes 


132  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

a  bear  cat  Antigonus,  to  what  end?    What  docs  Shake- 
speare gain  by  prolonging  the  life  of  Hermione? 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  Shakespeare's  remodelling  of  Greene's  story  show 
chiefly  a  higher  ideal  than  Greene's  of  womanhood  and 
of  love? 


IV 


THE  ALKESTIS  STORIES  IN  LITERATURE 

The  sacrifice  of  the  Queen  to  ease  her  husband,  and 
the  final  restoration,  being  the  two  main  points  of  con- 
tact with  Euripides'  version  of  the  story,  compare  with 
these  the  stories  of  Alkestis  told  by  William  Morris  in 
'The  Earthly  Paradise,'— 'June' ;  'The  Love  of  Alcestis,' 
by  Emma  Lazarus,  in  'Admetos,1 — 'Poems,'  vol.  i.;  by 
Robert  Browning  in  'Balustion's  Adventure;'  by  Long- 
fellow in  'The  Golden  Legend.'  See  also  articles  in 
Poet-lore, — 'The  Alkestis  of  Euripides  and  of  Browning,' 
July,  1890;  'Old  and  New  Ideals  of  Womanhood';  'The 
Iphigenia'  and  'Alkestis  Stories,'  May,  1891;  'Longfel- 
low's Golden  Legend  and  its  Analogues,'  February,  1892. 
In  comparing,  note  first  general  resemblances,  then  slighter 
points  of  resemblance  and  of  difference. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  development  in  literature  of  the  ideal  of  womanhood 
away  from  self-sacrifice  and  toward  self-development? 
Is  woman's  task  for  the  future  a  reconciliation  of  them  ? 


THE  WINTER'S  TALE  133 

V 

THE  OUTCAST  CHILD  IN  CULTURE-LORE  AND  FOLK-LORE 

A  few  of  the  outcast  children  in  culture-lore  are  Krish- 
na, Zeus,  Paris,  Oedipus,  King  Arthur,  Claribel's  child  in 
the  'Faerie  Queene'  (canto  xii.),  etc.  For  the  stories  in 
folk-lore,  see  the  English  Folk-lore  Journal.  For  the  solar 
theory  of  the  origin  of  this  story,  see  Cox,  'Mythology  of 
the  Aryan  Nations.' 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Collier  says  that  Shakespeare  changed  Greene's  pretty 
description  of  turning  Fawnia  adrift  in  a  boat  because  he 
had  used  much  the  same  incident  in  "The  Tempest."  Does 
Shakespeare's  new  treatment  of  Greene's  "pretty  incident" 
add  dramatic  force  and  moral  purpose  to  the  play? 

VI 

CHARACTER  STUDIES 

i.  PAULINA;  LEONTES;  HERMIONE 

Note  Paulina's  likeness  to  Emilia  in  "Othello."  Jeal- 
ousy in  Shakespeare:  Resemblances  in  Leontes  to  Post- 
humus  ("Cymbeline")  and  to  Othello.  "The  jealousy  of 
Leontes,"  says  Dowden,  "is  not  a  detailed  dramatic  study 
like  the  love  and  jealousy  of  Othello.  It  is  a  gross  mad- 
ness, which  mounts  to  the  brain  and  turns  his  whole  nature 


134  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

into  unreasoning  passion."  Is  Hermione  more  highly  de- 
veloped than  others  of  Shakespeare's  suspected  wives, — 
Desdemona,  Imogen  ?  Likeness  or  superiority  to  Alkestis, 
Compare  with  Queen  Katharine  in  'Henry  VIII.'  Is  she 
hard,  having  made  her  husband  do  penance  for  sixteen 
years?  "Deep  and  even  quick  feeling  never  renders  Her- 
mione incapable  of  an  admirable  justice,"  writes  Dowden, 
"nor  deprives  her  of  a  true  sense  of  pity  for  him  who  so 
gravely  wrongs  both  her  and  himself." 

2.   THE  YOUNG   LOVERS 

Notice  the  high  and  pure  character  of  their  love  as 
shown  in  the  facts  that  Florizel  did  not  find  it  fitting  to 
buy  pcdler's  "knacks"  for  Perdita, — a  trait  not  in  Greene. 
Her  independent  and  uncringing  nature  as  shown  in  an- 
other little  touch  of  Shakespeare  (sec  IV.  iv.  492-497). 
Compare  these  two  lovers  with  Ferdinand  and  Miranda 
in  "The  Tempest." 

3.   THE  ORIGINALITY  OF  SHAKESPEARE'S  AUTOLYCUS 

For  suggestions  see  Poet-lore,  April,  1891.  ('Notes 
and  News.')  Compare  the  Hermes  of  the  Homeric  Hymn 
with  the  Autolycus  and  Sisyphos  of  mythology,  also  the 
folk-lore  tales  of  the  master-thief  (Cox).  To  discuss  the 
probable  originality  with  Shakespeare  of  a  conception 
which  is  one  of  the  universal  inheritances  of  the  Aryan 
race  is  futile ;  the  type  existed,  and  Shakespeare's  part  was 
to  make  an  individual  of  the  type. 


THE  WINTER'S  TALE  135 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Is  Leontes'  jealousy  too  gross  and  unfounded  to  be 
likely? 

Is  Hermione,  not  hard,  but  slow  to  be  satisfied,  because 
her  love  is  noble? 

Is  Mamillus  not  too  precocious  to  be  natural? 

VII 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  PLOT 

Has  Shakespeare  welded  the  two  parts  of  the  story  to- 
gether in  such  a  way  as  to  unify  the  plot  ?  Does  Autolycus 
contribute  anything  to  the  development  of  the  plot  ?  How 
does  it  compare  with  "Julius  Caesar"  or  "Macbeth,"  for 
example,  in  the  construction  of  the  plot?  Is  the  move- 
ment more  rapid  in  the  last  half  of  the  play  or  in  the 
first?  Note  the  expedient  introduced  by  Shakespeare  to 
bridge  over  the  lapse  of  time  between  the  first  part  and 
the  last  part;  compare  with  other  examples  of  the  same 
sort  in  Shakespeare. 

QUERY   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  the  dramatic  interest  of  'The  Winter's  Tale'  suf- 
fer because  the  plot  is  of  less  importance  than  the  inci- 
dents and  characters. 


136  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

VIII 

SHAKESPEARE'S  WORKMANSHIP  IN  "THB  WINTER'S  TALE" 

The  versification  is  that  of  Shakespeare's  latest  group 
of  plays,  Dowden  says,  "No  five-measure  lines  are 
rhymed  and  run  on  lines,  and  double  endings  are  numer- 
ous." Give  examples  of  the  construction  of  the  lines 
from  "Love's  Labour's  Lost"  as  an  earlier  play,  "Mer- 
chant of  Venice"  as  a  riper  play.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  difficulties  of  style  in  the  play  are  accounted  for  by  the 
endeavor  of  the  author  to  reflect  the  changing  moods  of 
Leontes.  Compare  with  Prospero's  diction  and  construc- 
tion in  "The  Tempest."  Give  examples  of  these. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  the  lawlessness  of  poetic  workmanship  in  "The 
Winter's  Tale,"  together  with  the  looseness  of  the  dra- 
matic construction,  show  a  deterioration  from  the  ripe 
power  of  Shakespeare's  middle  period,  or  that  practised 
artistic  mastery  which  is  free  from  art  by  means  of  per- 
fect art? 

IX 

PERDITA'S  GARDEN 

The  flower-imagery  of  "The  Winter's  Tale"  compared 
with  other  flower-scenes  in  Shakespeare, — in  "A  Midsom- 


THE  WINTER'S  TALE 


137 


mer  Nights  Dreame"  and  "Hamlet."  The  classic  and 
folk-lore  allusions.  The  pastoral  element  in  "As  you 
Like  It"  and  "Winter's  Tale." 


QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 


The  rustic  scenes  have  little  bearing  on  the  play;  are 
they  necessary  to  Shakespeare's  art  in  order  to  throw  a 
clear  light  on  the  character  of  his  protagonists? 


THE  ETHICS  OF  "THE  WINTER'S  TALE" 

"The  Winter's  Tale"  gives  examples  of  meritorious  ac- 
tions losing  their  virtue  with  the  progress  of  ideas ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  civic  virtue,  allegiance  to  the  king,  is  what 
Leontes  depends  upon  in  his  talk  with  Camillo,  with  An- 
tigonus,  and  the  other  lords.  Note  Camillo's  reason  for 
not  poisoning  Polixenes  to  order, — that  it  is  risky  to  kill 
a  king  even  at  command  of  a  king.  That  such  a  reason 
would  be  considered  small  moral  support  to-day  appears, 
for  example,  in  the  indignation  or  amusement  expressed  in 
the  newspapers  on  the  German  Emperor's  address 
to  his  army  on  the  soldier's  duty  of  obedience.  In  Shake- 
speare's day  a  king  had  taken  matters  in  his  own  hands  in 
the  trial  of  his  wife,  much  as  Leontes  did  (see  "Henry 
VIII".).  The  moral  significance  of  Hermione's  patience 
under  accusation  appears  in  the  long  reparation  she  re- 
quires. Paulina  is  made  to  speak  for  her  during  her  se- 


138  SHAKESPEARE'S  COMEDIES 

elusion.  What  arc  the  "secret  purposes"  which  Shake- 
speare makes  her  subserve?  Observe  that,  if  the  fulfilment 
of  the  oracle  and  the  restoration  of  the  child  were  all 
Paulina  anticipates,  there  would  be  no  use  in  her  remon- 
strances against  a  second  marriage  and  in  her  goading  the 
king  to  remorse. 

QUERIES  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Does  Shakespeare's  ideal  of  love  and  constancy,  as  re- 
vealed in  'The  Winter's  Tale/  imply  that  second  marriages 
are  offences  against  the  first.  Has  the  objection  Paulina 
makes  to  his  re-marriage  such  a  cause  or  is  it  a  necessity  of 
the  plot? 

Does  the  way  of  telling  "The  Winter's  Tale"  indicate 
the  passing  away  of  aristocratic  and  the  formation  of  demo- 
cratic ideals,  and  the  dawning  change  in  the  status  both  of 
woman  and  the  commoner? 


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